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Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2022 with funding from 
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httos://archive.org/details/writingsofnewtesOOvoll 


The Writings of the New Testament 
In Their Historical Setting 


BY PHILIP VOLLMER, Ph.D. 


THE WRITINGS OF THE NEW 
TESTAMENT in Their Historical 


Setting. Cloth, $1.50. 
NEW TESTAMENT SOCIOLOGY. 
Cloth, $2.25. 


THE MODERN STUDENT'S LIFE 
OF CHRIST. Cloth, $1.50, 


The Writings of the New 
Testament 
In Their Historical Setting 


An Outline Guide for the Study 
of the New Testament 


By 
PHILIP VOLLMER, Ph.D., D.D. 
Professor in Eden Theological Seminary, St. Louis, Ao. 


Author of ‘The Modern Student's Life of Christ,”’ 
“New Testament Sociology,’’ ‘‘Fohn Calvin,” 
“The Reformation a Liberating Force,’ etc. 





NEw YORK CHICAGO 


Fleming H. Revell Company 


LONDON AND EDINBURGH 


Copyright, 1924, by 
FLEMING H. REVELL COMPANY 


Printed in the United States of America 


New York: 158 Fifth Avenue 
Chicago: 17 North Wabash Ave. 
London: 21 Paternoster Square 
Edinburgh: 75 Princes Street 


Foreword 


Tuts book is intended as a help in the study of 
the New Testament books from the historical 
point of view, and its aim is to assist in promoting 
more thorough Bible knowledge. 

It has been primarily arranged for the use of 
advanced Bible work in higher institutions of learn- 
ing, adult Sunday School classes, Teacher Train- 
ing institutes and similar groups of Bible students. 
But by omitting Parts I and IV, and condensing 
some other parts, the book will also serve as a 
safe guide for more elementary studies of the sub- 
jects treated therein. 

In order to encourage self-activity on the part 
of the student, the material has been set forth in 
syllabus form, calling for further explanations, 
side-reading, papers and discussions. 

In view of the general lack of accurate Bible 
knowledge among modern Christians, we would 
advise devoting most of the available time to the 
reading of each N. T. book itself, in the order 
studied, and to the writing of original sum- 
maries of its main contents, rather than to the 
intricacies of critical theories about the book. 
Critical questions are therefore discussed only 
where a real problem presents itself, Students in- 


5 


6 Foreword 


clined to specialize in N. T. criticism, will find in 
the book copious references to reliable literature 
on all phases of the subject. 
PHILIP VOLLMER. 
Eden Theological Seminary, 
St. Lous, Mo. 


VI. 


Contents 
PART I 


Historical Introduction to the New 


Testament aoe 
Introduction 


Geography of the World “of Jesus al the 
Apostolic Church . : al 


The Political World of loa ad the Apor 
tolic Church 


The Intellectual and Cuong World of 
Christ and His Apostles 


The Religious World of Jesus and "he 
Apostles 


Social and Moral Gbeaan in the First 
Century 


PART II 


General Introduction to the New Testament 


VII. 


Vill. 


XIII. 


Character, Name and Classification of the 
New Testament Writings 


Original Language and Form of the New 
‘Testament ‘ : 


New Testament Tested ee 
Higher Criticism of the New Testament 
The New Testament Canon 


Translations and Circulation of He pet 
Testament 


The Interpretation of the Nee Toten 


7 


8 Contents 
PART III 


Special Introduction to the New Testament 


ALS General Aspects of the Four Gospels 


XV. The Three Synoptic Gospels and the a 
noptic Problem . ° 


XVI. John’s Gospel and the Book of ee : 


XVII. General Aspects of the New ‘Testament 
Epistles : : : 


XVIII. = Life and Work of St. Paul 
XIX, The First aaa a Group of Paul’ 


Epistles . : ; 

XX, The Second Chronological Sane of Paul’ $ 
Epistles : 

XXI. The Third Chronological Grosp of Paul's 
Epistles 

XXII. The Fourth Chronological Group of Paul's 8 
Epistles 


XXIII. The Epistle to the Herons 
XXIV. The Seven General Epistles 
XXV. The Prophetic Book of Revelation . 


PART IV 


Variety in the Unity of the New 

Testament Writings 

XXVI. Difference Between New Testament and 
Systematic Theology : 

XXVIT. Description of the New Testament hie of 
Teaching ; . 

XXVIII. History, Value and Method of Ms New 
Testament Theology . 


XXIX. Historical Roots of the New Testhinent 
Teaching . ; : ° ° 


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Historical Introduction to 
The New Testament Writings 


CHAPTER I 
INTRODUCTION 


Literature: 

Schaff-Herzog, “ New Encyclopedia,” II, 178. 

Schaff, “ Theological Propzdeutics,” pp. 93, 151. 
Bassermann, “ Wie Studiert Man Theologie,’ pp. 21-79. 
Lemme, “ Theological Encyclopedie,” p. 68. 

Buechsel, “ Wie studiert Man das Neue Testament.” 


DEFINITION OF THE SUBJECT 


The scientific term of the subject discussed in 
this book is New Testament Introduction, by which 
is understood that subdivision of exegetical the- 
ology which treats of the history of the N. T. 
literature. 


Note:—The place of New Testament Introduction in the 
organism of the various theological departments may be 
learned from the following general survey of the theological 
science as a whole: 


I. Exegetical Theology. 
1. Biblical Philology. 
2. Biblical Archeology. (Description of Bible lands and 
people, ) 
3. Old and New Testament Introduction and Criticism. 
4. Biblical Hermeneutics. (Laws of interpretation and 


exposition of text.) 
s. Bible History. (O. T. H.; Life of Christ; and Ap. 
ge.) 


9 


10 The Writings of the New Testament 


6. Biblical Theology. (Summary of results of exegesis.) 

7. Biblical Sociology of the Old and New Testaments. 
Il. Historical Theology. 

1. General Church History. (From the end of the Ap- 
- ostolic Age.) 

2. History of Missions. 

3. History of Dogma. (His. of development of the 
doctrines, as e. g., the deity of Christ; the Lord’s Supper; 
Justification, etc.) 

Ill. Systematical Theology. 


1. Theo. Encyclopedia. (A general survey of all theo- 
logical branches.) 

2. Apologetics. (Theory of defense of Christianity.) 

3. Dogmatics. (Science of the Christian Religion.) 

4, Symbolics. (Comparison of the chief official creeds of 
Christendom, either in an irenic or a polemic spirit.) 

5. Christian Ethics. (Theory of Christian morality.) 


IV. Practical Theology. 

1. Religious Education, including catechetics. (Prin- 
ciples and theory of instruction in the Christian Faith.) 

2. Homiletics. (Theory of Preaching.) 

3. Liturgics. (Theory of Christian Worship.) 

4. Poimenics or Pastoral Theology. (Survey of the 
work of the minister as pastor.) 

5. Guberneutics. (Church Government.) 

It is proposed to treat N. T. Introduction under 
the following four headings: 

I. Historical Introduction to the N. T.—The 
books of the N. T., like all other writings, are 
products of their own times, containing frequent 
allusions to the geographical, historical, cultural, 
social, moral and religious conditions of the times 
and places in which they originated. ‘They cannot 
therefore be adequately understood without some 
knowledge of their historical setting. Hence, a 
general survey of the historical background will 
lighten up the contents of the New Testament 


Introduction 11 


collection as a whole as well as each individual 
book and its separate passages. 

Il. General Introduction, which treats of the 
N. T. viewed as a whole: of its name, divisions, 
language, sources, criticism, canon and interpreta- 
tion. 

Ill. Spectal Introduciton, which treats of each 
book separately: of its authorship, credibility, in- 
tegrity, sources, purpose, readers, time and place 
of composition, analysis, etc. 


Note—The modern name for general and special introduc- 
tion is “ Biblical Criticism,’ which will be further explained 
in Parts I] and III of this book. 


IV. Theological Introduction, which aims to 
exhibit the variety in the unity of N. T. teaching: 
the different types and individual manner in which 
the various authors give expression to the one 
Gospel fundamental to all of them. 


Note—We repeat that Part III constitutes the chief sub- 
ject of this book; so that in case time is lacking, any of the 
other parts may be entirely omitted or assigned for rapid 
perusal. (See “ Foreword.’) 


A WorKING LIBRARY 


In addition to the books recommended in the 
different chapters, special attention is here called 
to some of the best reference works which contain 
reliable information in condensed and therefore 
money- and time-saving form on every subject 
treated in this syllabus. 


(1) Bible Dictionaries in one volume—by Davis, Hastings, 
Smith, Shailer Mathews, Guthe (“ Kurzes Bibelworter- 
buch a and others. 


12 The Writings of the New Testament 


(2) Larger Bible dictionaries and encyclopaedias, such as: 

sna “Dictionary of the Bible” (4 vols. and supple- 
ment). 

Heelan “Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels” (2 
vols.). 

Hastings, “ Dictionary of the Apostolic Church” (2 vols.). 

aint “Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics” (12 
vols.). 

“International Standard Bible Dictionary” (5 vols.). 

“ Encyclopedia Bibliea” (4 vols.). 

The New Schaff-Herzog “Encyclopedia of Religious 
Knowledge” (13 vols.). 

Hauck-Herzog, “ Realencyclopedie ftir prot. Theologie 
und Kirche” (22 vols.). 

(3) Bible Concordances, by Cruden, Young, Calwer 
Bibelkonkordanz, Hazard (Concordance to the American 
Standard Bible). 


CHAPTER II 


GEOGRAPHY OF THE WORLD OF JESUS 
AND pH APOSTOLIC, CHURCH 


1. Geography of Palestine 


Literature: 

A map of Palestine should be carefully studied, or better, 
drawn by the student himself. 

Consult a Bible dictionary on the various places. 

Smith, W. W., “The Student’s Historical Geography of 
the Holy Land.” 


General Aspects of Palestine. The physical 
world in which Jesus lived was Palestine. (1) 
Names: Canaan, before it became the home of 
Israel (Gen. 16:3; 17:8); Israel, from the 
Conquest till the Babylonian Captivity (2 Kings 
5:2); Judea, after the Babylonian Captivity (Neh. 
5:14; Mark 1:5); Palestine (from Philistia), 
since the days of Christ. Other designations: 
© The Land ot )Promise”.) (Heb. 11:9), The 
Holy Land” (Zech. 2:12). (2) Antiquity. It 
is older than Greece and Rome. Abraham dwelt 
at Sychar 2,000 years before Christ rested at its 
well. Joshua conquered it 200 years before Troy 
fell. Solomon was dead 200 years before Romu- 
lus founded Rome in 754 3B. c. Gideon and 
Achilles, Elijah and Homer were contemporaries. 
(3) Location: In Western Asia, bounded by Syria, 
Arabia, Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea. (4) 
Extent: In shape and size it is much like the state 
of New Hampshire. Including Perea, it contains 

13 


14 The Writings of the New Testament 


12,000 square miles; without it, about 9,000. Its 
seacoast from Tyre to Gaza is 140 miles long; its 
Jordan line, from Mt. Hermon to the south end 
of the Dead Sea is 156 miles. It is from 25 to 70 
miles wide. (5) Roads: Four great highways, 
linking Asia, Europe and Africa, cross it. Up and 
down the coast road the great armies of the 
nations passed. Sennacherib, the Assyrian, 
Alexander of Macedon, Pompey, Titus, Saladin, 
Napoleon, generals during the World War, 
1914—1918,—all led their armies over this high- 
way. (6) Fertility: It was a land “ flowing with 
milk and honey,” and was cultivated like a garden 
to the very tops of the mountains. No modern 
land has been made to support so dense a popula- 
tion. Wheat, barley, the vine and the olive grew 
luxuriantly. (7) Climate: Palestine is semi-trop- 
ical, the heat being tempered by its mountains. 
Snow is rare and the winters are short. 

Physical Divisions. (1) Along the Mediter- 
ranean lies the seacoast plain, two or three miles 
wide at the north, but widening as it goes south- 
ward, to nearly twenty miles at Gaza. (2) Cross- 
ing this are the Shephelah or foot hills; a terrace 
of low hills from 800 to 500 feet high. (8) As- 
cending these, we reach the mountain region, a 
range of mountains broken by ravines, varying 
from 2,500 to 3,000 feet in height. This region 
was the home of the Israelites in all their history. 
The plains and valleys were mainly foreign and 
heathen in their population. (4) Crossing the 


Geography of the World of Jesus 15 


mountains, we descend to the Jordan Valley, 
lower than the sea level, and from five to twenty 
miles wide. (5) Beyond the valley rises the 
Eastern Table-land with higher mountains but 
more level summits, and broken by fewer valleys. 
The mountains gradually decline to the great 
Syrian desert on the east. 

Sacred Mountains. (1) Quarantania, the tra- 
ditional mount of temptation, in the wilderness 
between Jerusalem and the Dead Sea. (2) Mount 
of Beatitudes (Horns of Hattin), the scene of the 
Sermon on the Mount, just west of the Sea of 
Galilee. (8) Mount Tabor, the traditional Mount 
of Transfiguration. (4) Mount Hermon, prob- 
ably the real Mount of Transfiguration, thirty 
miles north of the Sea of Galilee. (5) Calvary, 
the place of the crucifixion, probably to the north 
of ancient Jerusalem. The Gospels simply call it 
“a place,” not a mount. 

sacred Waters. (1) The Jordan, rising in 
Mount Hermon, flowing south, 1380 miles, through 
Lake Merom, and the Sea of Galilee to the Dead 
Sea, narrow, swift, with occasional fords. (2) 
The Sea of Galilee, thirteen miles long and eight 
wide, encircled by a dense population. The only 
navigable water in Palestine. (Luke 5: 1—*“‘ Sea 
of Gennesaret ”; John 6: 1—‘‘ Sea of Tiberias.” ) 
(3) The Brook Kedron, flowing between the Tem- 
ple and the Mount of Olives, dry most of the year. 
(4) The Pools of Siloam and Bethesda, on the 
south and east of Jerusalem. 


16 The Writings of the New 'Testament 


Political Divisions. In Christ’s time Pales- 
tine was divided into three provinces, each having 
several subdivisions, some of the latter standing 
out rather prominently in the New Testament. 

(1) Judea, the southernmost province. Being 
the largest province and the special home of the 
Jewish people it often gave its name to the whole 
land; as in Mark 1:5; Luke 7: 17, Acts 10:07. 
Places mentioned in the N. T.: — Jerusalem, 
Bethlehem, Bethany, Jericho.—The northern part 
of Judea is known as Samaria, which was not a 
separate province with a political organization, but 
only a district around the cities of Shechem and 
Samaria, extending neither to the Jordan nor to 
the Mediterranean, and of uncertain limits; gov- 
erned from Judea, and inhabited by a composite 
people, partly Israelites, partly heathen in their 
origin. Prominent places:—-Samaria, Sychar, 
Jacob’s Well—The southern part of Judea was 
Idumea, a narrow belt of rugged highlands, 100 
miles long by 20 wide, stretching from the south- 
east of the Dead Sea, to the eastern arm of the 
Red Sea. It was the land of the Edomites, 
descendants of Esau.—The territory of Judea east 
of the Jordan and the Dead Sea is called in the 
N. T. “the borders of Judea, beyond the Jordan” 
(Matt. 19:1; Mark 10:1), from which our 
name for it, “ Perea” (meaning “ beyond”) is 
derived. Prominent places: Bethany (A. V. 
Bethabara) and the fortress of Machezrus. 

(2) Galilee, north of Judea and west of the 


Geography of the World of Jesus 17 


Jordan (from the Hebrew “ galil,” “ circle,” or 
district), divided into Lower and Upper Galilee; 
inhabited by a brave, simple-hearted people, mainly 
Jews, but with many Gentiles among them. Hence 
ealleds., Galilee, of the \Gentiles”’).(Isa,. 9? 1-2; 
Matt. 4: 15, 16), hence also the contempt in which 
it was held at Jerusalem (John 7:41, 52). 
Prominent places: Capernaum, Nazareth, Nain, 
West Bethsaida, Cana, Magdala, Tiberias. 

(3) Philip’s Tetrarchy, in the northeast, em- 
bracing five sections: Gaulanitis, Auranites, Trach- 
onites, Batanea (Luke 3:1). Prominent places: 
Bethsaida Julias, Ceesarea Philippi. 

(4) Scattered throughout this province was 
Decapolis (Mark 7:31), a league of ten Greek 
cities. According to Pliny, their names were 
Scythopolis, Hippos, Gadara, Pella, Philadelphia, 
Gerasa, Dion, Canatha, Damascus, and Raphana. 


2. Geography of the Apostolic Church 


Literature: 

Study a map of the Apostolic Age. 

Consult a Bible dictionary on the various subjects. 

Ramsey, “ Historical Geography of Asia Minor.” 

Case, “ Environment of Early Christianity,” p. 48, on “ The 
Mediterranean World in New Testament Times.” 

Harnack, “ Mission and Expansion of Christianity in the 
First Three Centuries,” II, p. 97. 


Implicitly every one of the three continents, 
known to the ancients—Asia, Europe and Africa— 
is alluded to in the New Testament. 

Of the important seas four are mentioned: 
(1) The Mediterranean Sea. Voyages on it are 


18 The Writings of the New Testament 


referred to in Acts 9: 30; 18:4; 21: 1, 2; 27: 3. 
(2) The Black Sea, north of Asia Minor. (3) 
The A®gean Sea, between Asia Minor and Greece. 
Voyages upon it in Acts 6: 11; 18: 18; 20: 13-15. 
(4) The Adriatic Sea, between Greece and Italy 
(Acts 27: 27). 

Five islands are named: (1) Cyprus, in the 
northeast corner of the Mediterranean (Acts 4: 
386; 18:4). (2) Crete, south of the A’gean Sea, 
between Asia Minor and Greece (Acts 27: 7; 
Titus 1:5). (8) Patmos, in the A’gean Sea, not 
far from Ephesus (Rev. 1:9). (4) Sicily, south- 
west of Italy (Acts 28:12). (5) Melita, now 
Malta, south of Italy (Acts 28: 1). 

The different provinces mentioned may be 
arranged in four groups: (a) Those on the conti- 
nent of Europe are: (1) Thrace, (2) Macedonia 
(Acts 14: 9, 10;20: 1-3). (8) Greece, also called 
Achaia (Acts 18:12; 20:3). (4) Illyricum or 
Dalmatia (Rom.15:'19 29 (oy italy CActs 2ie a 
(6) Spain. (b) Those on the continent of Africa 
are: (1) Africa Proper. (2) Libya (Acts 2: 10). 
(3) Egypt (Matt. 2:13). (c) Those on the 
continent of Asia, exclusive of Asia Minor, are: 
(1) Arabia, perhaps referring to the desert region, 
southeast of Palestine (Gal. 1:17). (2) Judea, 
the Jewish name for all Palestine, in the New 
Testament period (Luke 1:5). (8) Pheenicia 
(Mark 7:24; Acts 15:3; 21:2). (4) Syria, 
north of Palestine (Acts 15: 41; 20: 3). 

The fourteen provinces in Asia Minor, so 


Geography of the World of Jesus 19 


frequently mentioned in the Acts and Epistles, may 
be divided into four groups: (a) Three on the 
Black Sea, beginning on the east: (1) Pontus 
(Acts 18:2). (2) Paphlagonia. (38) Bithynia 
(I Peter 1:1). (0) Three on the A’gean Sea, 
beginning on the north. (4) Mysia (Acts 16: 17). 
(5) Lydia. (6) Caria. These three provinces 
together formed the important province known as 
MeAstany (Acts), 27.9.5 2050). (6) Three on 
the Mediterranean Sea, beginning on the west: (7) 
Lycia (Acts 27:5). (8) Pamphylia (Acts 13: 
ag) ( Oy Cilicia OActs 1247130). (0) Shiver in 
the interior: (10) On the north: Galatia (Gal. 
1:2). (11) On the east, Cappadocia (Acts 2: 9). 
(12) On the southeast, Lycaonia (Acts 14:6). 
(13) On the southwest, Pisidia (Acts 13:14). 
(14) On the west: Phrygia (Acts 16: 6). 


CHAPTER III 


THE POLITICAL WORLD OF JESUS AND 
THEVAPOSTOLIG (COU RCE 


Literature: 

Bible Dictionaries on the various subjects. 

Riggs, “A History of the Jewish People.” 

Farrar, “ Early Days of Christianity,” Med 27, 29 (Jew- 


Mathews, S., “A History of the N. T. Times.” 

Schiirer, “ The Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ.” 

Holtzmann, “ Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte.” 

Josephus, “Antiquities,’ XX and XIII (Greek-Macedonian 
period). 


pears Philip, “The Modern Student’s Life of Christ,” 


Pp 
Read the O. T. books of Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther; also 
Books I and II Maccabees of the O. T. Apocrypha. 


The Ancient Jews under Foreign Rule. 
When Christ was born, the Jews had been living 
under foreign rule for about seven hundred years, 
since 722 and 588 B. C., in the following succes- 
sion. 

(1) In 722 3. c. the Assyrians destroyed the 
northern kingdom of Israel and carried the ten 
tribes into the Assyrian captivity, where they were 
“lost,” that is, assimilated with the heathen nations 
of the East, while in their former homeland there 
developed a people from the intermarriage between 
Jews and immigrant Gentiles, known as the 
Samaritans. 

(2) The Babylonian Rule, about 50 years (588- 

20 


The Political World of Jesus 21 


586 B. c.), from the Babylonian Captivity of the 
southern kingdom of Judea, to the Fall of Babylon 
through Cyrus. Jerusalem lay in ruins, and the 
godly Jews were homesick (Ps. 137). 

(3) The Persian Rule, about 200 years (B. c. 
536 to 830). Cyrus, the Persian, overthrew the 
Babylonian Empire and in 586 B. c. allowed the 
Jews to return and rebuild the Temple in Jerusa- 
lem. Only 42,360 Jews returned under Zerub- 
babel and Joshua, and laid the foundations of the 
Temple (Ezra 1: 64; 3: 10-13). The Samaritans 
offered to help, but were refused. Thereupon they 
accused the Jews of treason at the Persian court, 
which led to a cessation of the work for twelve 
years. In 516 the Temple was finally completed. 
In 458 Ezra was sent from Persia to Jerusalem, 
and in 445 came Nehemiah. Both men reorgan- 
ized the national life (See their books in the 
Oreilt.) | 

(4) Greek-Macedonian Rule.—Nine years, 830- 
321 B. c. Alexander the Great destroyed the Per- 
sian Empire and ruled Palestine about nine years. 
He sent from Tyre to Jerusalem and demanded 
submission. When the Jews refused he marched 
against the city, but was pacified by a procession of 
priests coming to greet him. He treated the Jews 
with great kindness. After Alexander’s death, 
Palestine became the bone of contention between 
Syria and Egypt. 

(5) Egyptian Rule, 120 years (B. c. 321-198). 
Alexandria became the centre of Jewish influence. 


22 The Writings of the New Testament 


In 285 occurred the translation of the O. T. into 
Greek, called the Septuagint (LXX). 

(6) Syrian Rule, about 40 years (198-166 
B. c.). King Antiochus Epiphanes (“ The Il!lus- 
trious,” some called him, Epimanes—‘“ The Mad- 
man’), oppressed the Jews most cruelly.. His 
object was to extirpate the Jewish religion and 
force upon them Greek religion and culture. 
Jerusalem was twice sacked, the Temple desecrated 
by sacrificing swine on its altars, and finally closed. 
This treatment drove the Jews to revolt (168). 
After a two years’ struggle, led by the priest 
Mattathias and his five sons, especially Judas Mac- 
cabeeus (“hammer ’’), they gained their independ- 
ence in B. c. 166. 

(7) Maccabean Independence, 126 years (B. C. 
166-40). Civil war, treachery, bloodshed and 
anarchy characterized this period of Asmonean rule 
(from “ Hashman’”’ the ancestor of Maccabzeus). 
John Hyrcanus (185-105 B. c.) destroyed the 
Samaritan temple and forced the Idumeans to be- 
come Jews in religion. 

Roman Rule Over Palestine. This came on 
gradually and was at first indirect. Antipater, an 
Idumean officer of wealth, influence and ability, 
acquired complete control over the feeble Macca- 
bean priest-king, Hyrcanus II. When the latter 
and his brother Aristobulus could not agree on the 
succession, they appealed to the Roman general 
Pompey, who had just completed his victory over 
Syria and Pontus. In 63 B. c., Pompey came to 


The Political World of Jesus 23 


Jerusalem and decided for Hyrcanus. After the 
death of Pompey, Antipater saw that his advan- 
tage lay in supporting Julius Caesar (Pompey’s 
enemy) in his eastern campaign. In consequence, 
the latter conferred upon Antipater Roman citizen- 
ship and confirmed Hyrcanus in the high priest- 
hood. Antipater made his son Herod governor of 
Galilee. In 48 B. c. Antipater was poisoned. In 
order to ally himself with the reigning Maccabean 
House, Herod married Mariamne, the grand- 
daughter of Hyrcanus. 

Rule of Herod the Great. In 40 B. c. the 
Roman senate appointed Herod king of Palestine. 
The Jews resisted desperately and it took Herod 
three years to capture Jerusalem, after which he 
killed Antigonus, the last of the Maccabean priest- 
kings, 45 of his most prominent opponents, includ- 
ing every member of the Sanhedrin but two, and 
several members of his own family. He was bit- 
terly hated by the Jews for his cruelty, oppression 
and the introduction of pagan customs, erecting a 
theatre within, and an amphitheatre without the 
walls of Jerusalem, instituting games, and even 
gladiatorial combats with wild animals. From love 
of splendor, he enlarged and greatly beautified the 
Jewish Temple. He died in March, 4 B. c. (750 
Asati =C..) ' 

Rule of the Herodian Princes and Roman 
Governors in Palestine (4B. c.-101 a.p.). Dur- 
ing this period, the various sections of Palestine 
were governed by five Herodian princes and a num- 


24 'The Writings of the New Testament 


ber of Roman governors, in the following succes- 
sion: 

(1) Judea, including Samaria and Idumea, by 
Archelaus, son of Herod the Great (Matt. 2: 22), 
4 Bp. c.-—6 A. D.3; by Roman governors, of whom 
Pilate was the fifth, 6-44 a. D.; by Agrippa I, 
grandson of Herod (Acts 12:1, 21), 41-44; by 
Roman governors, 44-70:—Felix, 52-60 (Acts 
23: 25) and Festus, 60-62 (Acts 24: 27). 

(2) Galilee and Perea.—Herod Antipas, son of 
Herod the Great, 4 B. c.-39 a. D. (Luke 3:1; 18: 
32; 23:7); Agrippa I, 89-44; the Roman gov- 
ernors of Judea, 44—70. 

(3) Northeastern Territory.—Philip the Tet- 
rarch, son of Herod the Great, 4 B. c.-33 A. D. 
(Luke 8:1); the Roman governor of Syria, 33- 
37; Agrippa I, 37-44; the Roman governor of 
Judea, 44-49; Agrippa II, son of Agrippa I (Acts 
25:13), 49-101. 

Note—Besides the six Herodian rulers, representing four 
generations, the following additional members of the Hero- 
dian family are also mentioned in the N. T.:—Philip, a son 
of Herod the Great, residing in Rome (Matt. 14:3), Bernice, 
the oldest and Drusilla, the youngest daughter of Agrippa I, 
and sisters of Agrippa II (Acts 25:13; 24:24). 

Method of Government and Taxation. ‘The 
rule of the Romans and the Herodians was harsh 
and taxation oppressive. Usually the Romans 
farmed out the revenues of a district or on a cer- 
tain article to a collector, called “ publican,” and 
the extortion resorted to by most of these con- 
tractors was only limited by the victim’s ability to 


The Political World of Jesus 25 


pay. A Jew who held such a position was treated 
as a social outcast; first, because paying taxes of 
any amount to a heathen power was considered 
treason to Jehovah, their invisible King; second, 
because most of them were personally dishonest 
(Luke 15: 1-2). 

Divisions, Names and Language. The Jew- 
ish nation was divided into two sections: The Jews 
in Palestine, and the Jews of the Dispersion. (1) 
The Jews living in Palestine enjoyed a consider- 
able measure of home-rule, the amount of which 
was increased or diminished according to men and 
circumstances. This power lay in the hands of the 
high priest and the general or local Sanhedrins. 
The former was composed of seventy elders with 
the high priest as president, the Pharisees having 
the majority, while the Sadducees held the offices. 
They are called “ Hebrews,’ though the real 
Hebrew language was not generally understood 
any more, the Aramaic being the language of the 
land. Greek was used by most Palestinian Jews, 
including Christ and his Apostles—(2) In the 
Apostolic Age the majority of the Jews were living 
outside of Palestine. They were called the “ dis- 
persion,” because they were scattered all over the 
Roman empire (John 7:35; Acts 2:10; James 
1:1; I Peter 1:1). ‘There were four sections of 
the Dispersion: (1) the original dispersion in 
Babylon; (2) in Syria and Asia Minor (Antioch) ; 
(3) in Egypt (Alexandria); (4) in the West 
(Rome). Because they used the Greek language 


26 The Writings of the New Testament 


‘chiefly and adopted to some extent Greek customs 
and culture, they are known as “ Hellenists.” | 
The Destruction of Jerusalem and the Tém- 
ple. Back of many passages in the N. ‘Ty lies 
the dark foreboding of the destruction of Jerusa- 
lem (Luke 19: 48-44; Rev. 11: 1-2). For many 
years the Jews were in a chronic state of concealed 
rebellion, and when Rome, in 44 a. p., took the 
government of the whole of Palestine directly in 
its own hands, dissatisfaction rose to such fervor 
that matters drifted slowly but surely into open 
rebellion, which finally broke out in 66 a. D. It 
took the Roman legions four years to suppress it. 
By the spring of A. pb. 70, Vespasian had conquered 
the whole country, except Jerusalem. This city 
he now turned over to his son, Titus, having mean- 
while been proclaimed emperor. After a siege in 
which the frantic defenders endured unparalleled 
sufferings, the city was captured, razed to the 
ground, the Temple destroyed, the wretched sur- 
vivors slain or sold into slavery, and the ruins oc- 
cupied by a Roman garrison. Under Emperor 
Hadrian, in 183-135, another unsuccessful rebel- 
lion broke out under the leadership of Bar-Cochbar, 
and this time the Jewish state was completely de- 
stroyed and Jerusalem was razed to the ground. 
History of the Roman Empire in the First 
Century. Though the name appears only twice 
in the Gospels (John 11: 48; 19: 20), Rome and 
the Romans formed a strong background to the 
action of the leading figures in the life of Christ 


The Political World of Jesus 27 


and the Apostolic Church, as is shown by numer- 
ous references (Matt. 22:17; Mark 12:14; 
huke 224; 8:15 20: 225.238: 2; John 19: 12; Acts 
18:23 25:12; Rev, 13). A brief.sketch of the 
Roman emperors will therefore be of great aid to 
the Bible student, the more so, as the exact stc- 
cession and the years of their reign have in some 
cases a decisive bearing on the correct interpreta- 
tion of passages like Revelation 17: 8, and others. 


CE eUOEstINS, 431 Bec, LO VIA AY De el uke) 27:7). The 
Temple of Janus was closed which was an indication that 
universal peace reigned throughout the world, when Jesus 
the “ Prince of Peace” was born. The defeat of the Roman 
legions by Herrmann, 9 A. D., in the Teutoburg Forest, was 
the last serious attempt of ‘the Romans to subjugate the 
Germans beyond the Rhine. He rebuilt and beautified Rome. 
(2) Tiberius, 14-37 (Luke 3:1), a great military commander 
and at first an able ruler. By degrees, owing to dissensions 
with his wife, he became gloomy and suspicious and ended 
his life as a cruel and revengeful tyrant. He spent the last 
eight years of his life on the beautiful island of Capri. 
Under his reign Jesus died, and it is said that Pilate sent 
him a report of the trial. Of the people he said, “ Let them 
hate me, provided they respect me.” (3) Caligula, 37-41. 
His actions indicate insanity. He demanded divine honors, 
delighted in bloodshed, wished the Roman people might have 
only one neck so that he might cut it off with a single 
stroke, had his favorite horse appointed a Consul, built a 
bridge from the Capitoline hill to the Palatine in order to 
be nearer to the temple of Jupiter, whose equal he considered 
himself to be. His motto was, “Let the people hate me, 
provided they fear me.” He drove the Jews to desperation 
by demanding that his statue be put into the Temple at 
Jerusalem. (4) Clawdius, 41-54, a man of learning, but 
weak and the slave of his two wicked wives, the second of 
which poisoned him. Under him Britain was conquered, the 
great aqueducts at Rome completed, and the Jews expelled 
from Rome (Acts 18:2). He laid down the significant 
principle: “It is right that men should live in the religion 
of their country.” He instituted humane laws in behalf of 
slaves. For the first time in the history of Rome the killing 


28 ‘The Writings of the New Testament 


of a slave by his master was branded as a capital offense. 
(5) Nero, 54-68. He came to the throne at the age of 
seventeen years, as the result of the intrigues of his mother, 
Agrippina. For the first eight years of his reign he left the 
administration of affairs in the hands of the famous Burrus, 
the prefect of the Pretorian guard, and of his teacher Sen- 
eca, the Stoic philosopher, and matters went well. After 
the death of Burrus, in 62 A. pD., Nero took hold of the 
government himself. He compelled Seneca to commit suicide 
and during the entire period following proved himself a 
knave beyond comparison, killing his mother, wife and 
brother. In 64, he set fire to Rome and put the blame on 
the Christians. This charge led to the first persecution of 
the Christians in 64-67, in which according to tradition Peter 
was crucified and Paul beheaded. When a revolution in the 
armies of Gaul, Spain and Germany broke out against him, 
he committed suicide, his last words being, ‘‘ What a great 
artist dies with me.” (Read “Quo Vadis.”)—During the 
anarchy following Nero’s suicide four emperors were 
crowned in quick succession (68-69). Concerning three of 
them: (6) Galba, (7) Otho, (8) Vitellius (69), interpreters 
are not agreed whether they should be counted in the enu- 
meration implied in Rev. 17:8, because they were elected 
and deposed by corruption. (9) Vespasian, 69-79. He was 
the general in the war against the Jews at the time he was 
elected. He succeeded in restoring peace to the empire and 
in reorganizing the government, by curtailing the prerog- 
atives of the old Roman nobles and giving representation in 
the Senate to the provinces and cities. He also built the 
famous Colosseum. (10) Titus, 79-81, the son of Vespasian, 
won all hearts by his justice and humanity. “I have lost a 
day,” he would say, when he had passed a day without hav- 
ing done an act of kindness. The eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, 
destroying Herculaneum and Pompeii, occurred during his 
reign. (11) Domitian, 81-96, brother of Titus, a scholar 
expressing high moral sentiments, but nevertheless a tyrant 
of the worst type. He cited the relatives of Jesus to appear 
before him, because he had a suspicion that they might re- 
vive the claims of Jesus to the throne of David. During his 
reign the second of the ten great persecutions of the Chris- 
tians occurred, during which he is said to have banished the 
Apostle John to Patmos. 


CHAPTER IV 


THE INTELLECTUAL AND CULTURAL 
WORLD OF CHRIST AND HIS 
AROSTLUES 


Literature: 

Consult Bible dictionaries and encyclopedias on the va- 
rious subjects. 

Bennett, “ Old Testament Introduction.” 

Davidson, “ Theology of the Old Testament.” 

Charles, “Apocrypha and Pseudepiprapha of the Old Testa- 
ment” (2 vol.). 

Kautsch, “Die Apocryphen und Apocalyptiker des Alt. 
Wesinw.(2 VOL). 

Angus, “ Environment of Early Christianity.” 

Case, “ Evolution of Early Christianity,’ Chap. 3. 

Vollmer, Philip, “ The Dialectical Method of Socrates.” 

Ueberweg, “ History of Philosophy,” (2 vol.). 


CHRISTIANITY arose in a highly developed intel- 
lectual age. The lands around the Mediterranean 
Sea had for millenniums been occupied successively 
by a variety of civilizations, by the Assyrians, 
Babylonians, the Hittites, Egyptians, Phoenicians, 
Jews, Greeks and Macedonians, Alexander the 
Great (336-323 B. c.) had diffused Greek civiliza- 
tion with its matchless language, literature, art, 
philosophy, and science all over the civilized world, 
so that in his day Greek culture had reached its 
highest point. History shows plainly that while 
God used the Jews as His instrument to furnish 
the substance of Christianity (John 4: 22), Greek- 

29 


30 The Writings of the New Testament 


Roman paganism, in the providence of God, con- 
tributed largely to its form. Without this codpera- 
tion Christianity would never have risen to the 
place of the universal world religion, but would 
have degenerated into a mere Jewish sect. The 
historical merit of. Alexander the Great was that 
he attempted to unify all the cultural elements and 
establish a universal world culture, by a process of 
fusion, instead of following the method of ancient 
and modern conquerors of trying to destroy the 
civilization he found and impose his own upon the 
conquered people. Rome continued this process 
of unification and extended its results. The new 
type of culture is commonly called “ Hellenistic,” 
because Greek achievements formed its foundation. 

The individual contributions of each of the three 
most important nations then holding sway, to this 
common world-culture may be briefly sketched as 
follows. 


1. The Contribution of the Jews to 
World Culture 


Jewish Type of Culture-——The Jews possessed, 
as the Talmud and the Old Testament show, a 
great mass of valid technical and general knowl- 
edge, but they lacked the power of logical abstrac- 
tion. ‘This showed itself in two ways: they could 
not frame definitions of objects but only gave de- 
scriptions, neither had they the right conception of 
law, but meant by law merely the precepts of a 
ruler. Consequently they had no real science and 


Intellectual and Cultural World = 31 


philosophy and very little art; the latter being 
discouraged by the 2nd commandment. 

Pre-Christian Judaism had developed two chief 
types of theology and philosophy: (1) Pharisaic 
scribism in Palestine and east of it—conservative 
and narrow. It was strenuously opposed to the 
spread of Greek culture, and some Rabbis pro- 
nounced a ban on all who studied “ Greek wisdom.” 
(2) Hellenism or Alexandrianism, which term 
denotes Judaism under the influence of Greek 
philosophy. The great leaders of this movement, 
Philo and others, made the ambitious attempt to 
show that there exists an entire harmony between 
the Old Testament Scriptures and Greek philoso- 
phy, making use of the allegorical method of inter- 
pretation. This Alexandrian type of teaching dif- 
fered materially from Pharisaic rabbinism as to 
subject, general spirit and broad-mindedness. 
Angelology was highly developed, a hierarchy of 
angels being conceived of as the mediators between 
God and man, administering the world and cul- 
minating finally in a Logos. But Philo’s Logos 
was nothing more than an adaptation to Jewish 
conceptions of Plato’s “ ideas ” and the “ imminent 
reason” of the Stoics. 

Jewish Interature-—The specific Jewish con- 
tribution to world culture consisted mainly in their 
rich literature which falls into five classes:—(1) 
The Old Testament canon, which was probably 
collected and closed by Ezra and other scribes. 
About 285 3B. c. these books were translated into 


82 ‘The Writings of the New Testament 


Greek and are known as the Septuagint (LXX).— 
(2) The Apocrypha (“ hidden,” referring to sus- 
pected authorship, but generally meaning only 
extra-canonical), form a group of 14 or 17 books 
written in the Greek language between 200 B. c. 
and the time of Christ. They are the product of 
the Hellenistic Jews, incorporated into the LXX, 
but excluded from the Hebrew Canon. Their titles 
are I & II Esdras, Tobit, Judith, Esther, Wisdom 
of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, Jeremy, Song 
of the Three Children, Susanna, Bel and the 
Dragon, Prayer of Manassas and I to IV Macca- 
bees —(3) The Apocalyptic books (“ uncover,’ ) 
the most important of which are the book of 
Enoch, Secrets of Enoch, Book of Jubilees, 
Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, Psalms of 
Solomon, Sibylline Oracles, Assumption of Moses. 
Their common characteristics are: the vision 
form, expressed in symbolical figures, phantastic 
beasts and mystic numbers, a highly developed 
angelology, pseudonymity (False name of au- 
thors), a “pessimistic optimism,’ peculiar the- 
ological ideas on sin, the Messiah, resurrection, 
judgment, punishment, reward, restoration of the 
world. The influence of these books on the N. T. 
is shown in the form of whole N. T. books, (Rev.), 
or of parts (Matt. 24; II Thess. 2: 2-12); in 
prominent phrases, as “Son of Man,” (Dan. 7: 
13), “day of judgment ’’; in quotations (Jude 14, 
from Enoch; Jude 9, from Ass. of Moses). 
some of their subject-matter is freely adopted 


Intellectual and Cultural World 383 


and spiritualized in the N. T.—(4) General Jewish 
Iiterature.—(1) Philo’s works (20 B. c.-53 A.D.), 
who was the most prominent exponent of Alex- 
andrianism. His aim was to show the perfect 
harmony between Old Testament religion and 
Greek philosophy by the use of the allegorical 
method of interpretation which enabled him to ex- 
plain away whatever seemed to obstruct the attain- 
ment of his object. John’s Gospel may have bor- 
rowed from him the general idea of the logos 
(John 1:1). (2) Josephus (87-103 a. D.), a 
Jewish priest, first a general of the Jewish rebels 
in Galilee, later a protégé of Titus. He wrote: 
1. Antiquities, the History of the Jews, 2. Jewish 
War, 38. Against Apion, and 4. An Autobiography. 
He wrote in Greek and Aramaic and his works 
serve the N. T. student greatly with reference to 
names, dates and the historical background in 
general—(5) The Talmud (“ doctrine,’ from the 
Hebrew “lamad”—he has learned) is an enor- 
mous collection of all kinds of Jewish traditions, 
divided into (1) the Talmud of Jerusalem and (2) 
the Talmud of Babylon. Each collection is di- 
vided into (1) the Mishna, or second law, consist- 
ing of Rabbinical interpretations of the Mosaic law 
and other traditions, and (2) the Gemara, being 
comments by rabbis on the text of the Mishna. 
(For selections, see Edersheim, “In the Days of 
Christ,” 309.) 


34 The Writings of the New Testament 


2. Greek Contributions to World Culture 


Greece contributed to civilization a most beauti- 
ful, pliable language as a means of world com- 
munication and thus greatly facilitated the spread 
of the Gospel. 

Greek art, literature and philosophy ruled the 
world in which Christ lived absolutely, as they still 
do ours to a large extent. Especially in their 
philosophy and theology they grappled with the 
three never dying problems of ontology, epistemol- 
ogy and of ethics, raising the important questions: 
What are the ultimate factors that account for the 
origin of the world and its continuance; what is 
truth; is it mere opinion; can man acquire a knowl- 
edge of ultimate reality; are our senses trust- 
worthy; and if they are, how may the many dif- 
ferences of opinion on the same subject be ex- 
plained ; what is the summum bonum; how may we 
get rid of tradition and breathe the purer air of 
liberty as to ethical standards? 

The three most influential schools of philosophy 
in the first century were the Epicureans, the Cynics 
and the Stoics—(1) The Epicureans were free 
thinking scientists, holding that matter was the 
only ultimate reality and that the senses were the 
only guides to be trusted in the quest for truth. 
All the current superstitions they unhesitatingly 
threw overboard. ‘They were ready to grant that 
the gods existed, but not that they exerted any 
direct influence on the life of men. The crowning 
virtue of the Epicureans was their sturdy loyalty 


Intellectual and Cultural World 35 


to facts as they saw them. Their philosophy, how- 
ever, was cold, entirely devoid of higher inspira- 
tion. (Paul at Athens).—(2) Cynicism, whose 
founder was a pupil of Socrates, aimed to teach 
men how to live true to nature. This ideal was 
often carried to crude extremes. The Cynic 
philosophers were sincerely devoted to the interests 
of the masses. Most of them lived lives of noble 
self-sacrifice and undoubtedly exerted a great in- 
fluence on the people. (3) A very popular philos- 
ophy was Stoicism. It taught that the ultimate 
reality in the universe was not matter but reason, 
and that the final source of reason was God. It is 
the Logos, or divine Reason, which binds men to 
God. All men, therefore, are divine in so far as 
that divine Reason enters into them and they fol- 
low its guidance. Like Christ, they taught that 
the supreme task in life was to do the divine will, 
and that the will of God is done by living a virtu- 
ous life in the service of man. In theory at least, 
Stoicism was democratic, for it taught that all men 
possessed the divine Reason. They believed that 
pain and suffering possess a positive value in de- 
veloping the individual and that therefore they 
should be patiently and joyously borne. In dealing 
with the old mythologies they, like the Jews of the 
dispersion, employed the allegorical method of in- 
terpretation. Stoics advocated the retention of 
the older forms of religion, as long as they were 
helpful in developing the individual. Regarding 
man’s future immortality, their teachings, espe- 


86 The Writings of the New Testament 


cially in the first Christian century, were vague and 
uncertain. 


Note—These philosophies, especially Stoicism, prepared 
the Greco-Roman world for Christianity: (1) negatively. 
The denial by the Epicureans and Academics of objective 
truth and the immortality of the soul, making pleasure the 
end of life, led to a frightful debasement of morals. Greek 
philosophy had exhausted the possibilities of the uninspired 
human mind, and the world was sadly in need of one who 
could say “I am the way and the truth and the life.” (2) 
positively. ‘The belief of the Stoics and others, that all men 
were children of God, that communication between him and 
them was possible and that the end of existence was to do 
God’s will by living a virtuous and self-sacrificing life pre- 
pared men for accepting Christianity which, as to its essence, 
is most certainly a religion of practical piety and holiness of 
life. The doctrine of the Logos, or Divine Reason, as the 
bond between God and man was also destined to exert a 
powerful influence upon certain phases of Christian thinking, 
finding acceptance in the opening verses of John’s Gospel. 


3. Roman Contribution to World Culture 


In philosophy, art and science the Romans were 
greatly dependent on the Greeks, but in working 
out principles of government, and in the capacity 
for organizing human affairs they are still in part 
the teachers of the world. By them the whole 
civilized world was welded into an organic whole 
in which law and order were enforced. By the ex- 
tension of Roman citizenship throughout the prov- 
inces, life was protected. Rome proved to be a 
civilizing influence of first quality by ruthlessly 
enforcing the “pax Romana,” upon the peoples 
encircling the Mediterranean; by breaking down 
many political and racial barriers, thus preparing 
the nations for the idea of a world citizenship; by 


Intellectual and Cultural World 37 


the building of the famous Roman highways over 
valleys, mountains and rivers, admired and used to 
this day, thus making travel easier and more rapid; 
by its imperial postal service which promoted inter- 
course and commerce. 

Moreover, Christ’s time was the “ golden age” 
of Roman literature, made illustrious by a large 
group of writers in prose and poetry. Its splendor 
and activity in art was such as had seldom existed 
in the history of the human race. Architectural 
works. Cesar Augustus himself built twelve 
temples, repaired 82 which had fallen into decay, 
laid out the new Forum Julium, completed the 
large Basilica Julia, constructed a mausoleum for 
himself. He could say “I have found a Rome 
of brick and left it one of marble.” oman art. 
The arch was developed into the dome as employed 
in the Pantheon. Greek art, especially the Doric, 
Ionic and Corinthian style of architecture, was in- 
troduced. Literature—Poets: Virgil died in 19 
B. C., wrote the A‘neid; Horace, died 8 A. D., is the 
model of lyric poetry. His odes, satires and 
epistles are models of wisdom. Ovid, died 17 a. D., 
wrote Metamorphoses. Prose writers: Sallust, 
Livy, the greatest of Roman historians, Nepos, 
Julius Cesar. Maecenes, a chosen counsellor of 
Augustus, was a munificent patron of literature, 
encouraging men like Horace and Virgil. States- 
men and orators: Cicero. Philosophers: Seneca, 
Cicero, Epictetus. 


CHAPTER V 


THE RELIGIOUS WORLD OF JESUS AND 
HIS APOSTLES 


Literature: 

Consult Bible dictionaries and encyclopedias on the va- 
rious subjects. 

Riggs, “ History of the Jewish People, 
Pe 

Paoee S., “History of N. T. Times,” Chap. XIII on 
“ Messianic Hope.” 


bP 


105-116 and 215- 


WueEn the Apostles offered the world a new 
religion they did not find virgin soil to cultivate, 
but rather a field occupied by many formidable 
competitors. Paul’s clever “captatio benevo- 
lentiz ’’ at Athens (Acts 17: 22) was literally true 
of the whole world. 


1. The Religious Life of the Jews 

The majority of the Jews in Christ’s time, in 
Palestine and in the diaspora, were intensely relig- 
ious, even to fanaticism. Some of the bright fea- 
tures of Jewish religious life were its glowing 
Messianic hopes its rich literature throbbing with 
high ideals; its missionary zeal; its religious re- 
vivals at the reunions on the great feasts; its Bible 
study in the synagogues; its strength to produce 
martyrs; its pious characters, such as Zacharias 
and Elizabeth, Mary, Simeon, Nicodemus, Hillel, 
Gamaliel. The dark side of first century Judaism 

38 


Religious World of Jesus 39 


appears in its religious factionalism, its external- 
ization of religion, its perversion of the Messianic 
ideal ; its bigotry and political fanaticism. 

Religious Parties, There were three religious 
sects among the Jews, the Pharisees, Sadducees and 
Essenes, which may be generally characterized as 
the conservative formalists, the advanced free 
thinkers and the mystical pietists or monks. 

(1) The Pharisees (from the Hebrew parash, 
“separated,” that is, people who by their superior 
holiness distinguished themselves from the multi- 
tude) numbered about 6,000 in the time of Christ. 
They were the popular party, narrow in their 
orthodoxy, anti-foreign, and had the majority in 
the Sanhedrin. Besides the written law, they held 
to an “oral law” which was a digest of Jewish 
traditions, now a part of the Talmud. At Christ’s 
time it was esteemed higher than the written law, 
but was condemned by him as a source of great 
error. They believed in the resurrection of the 
dead, and in Divine providence acting side by side 
with the free will of man. In the time of Christ 
they were divided doctrinally into several schools, 
among which those of Hillel (liberal) and Shamai 
(conservative) are most noted. As a class they 
represented the best morality; many were ascetics. 
Josephus compares them to the Stoics. Some in- 
dividuals were very good men (Nicodemus, Joseph 
of Arimathea, Gamaliel, Hillel, Shamai and St. 
Paul). Large numbers later joined the Christian 
church. As a class, they were opposed to Christ, 


40 The Writings of the New Testament 


because of his humble origin and lack of higher 
education (Matt. 13:55; John 7: 15); because of 
the company he kept (Luke 15: 2); and because 
he opposed ceremonialism and their wrong idea of 
the Sabbath. Christ opposed them because of their 
perversion of the Messianic ideal, national narrow- 
ness, religious formalism and _ self-righteousness. 
Their influence on the Apostolic Church is seen in 
the attitude of the Judaizers who imsisted on cir- 
cumcision as a condition of salvation. 

(2) The Sadducees derive their name from 
Zadoc, the priest who declared in favor of Solomon 
when Abiathar took the part of Adonijah (1 Kings 
13: 32-45), or from the Hebrew word “ tsadik,” 
righteous. They constituted a kind of sacerdotal 
aristocracy, counting among their adherents the 
families of the governing class under Herod (Acts 
5:17). The Sadducees denied the leading beliefs 
of the Pharisees, and especially the authority of the 
oral law, the resurrection, future punishment and 
reward. Christ seldom came in contact with them, 
while the Apostles did. 

The Essenes (probably meaning “seer” or the 
“silent,” the “mysterious ”’) were an ascetic sect, 
which aspired to ideal purity and divine commu- 
nion. They were communists living in isolated set- 
tlements, the best known of which was on the 
northwest shore of the Dead Sea. ‘They are not 
mentioned in the New Testament, and the prob- 
ability is that the Lord never came in contact with 
any of them. ‘Their ceremonial washings and the 


Religious World of Jesus 41 


reverence paid to the sun, point to Persian influ- 
ence, while their asceticism and the community of 
goods have a Pythagorian cast. ‘They wore white 
garments. 

Professions and Factions. (1) The Scribes 
(identical with the “ lawyers ’’) were copyists, cus- 
todians and interpreters of the Old Testament 
Scriptures. As formalists, worshipping the mere 
letter of the law, they called forth some of the 
sharpest rebukes of Jesus (Matt. 5: 20; 23: 2, 3, 
etc.). Asa class they belonged to the Pharisaic 
party—(2) The Zealots shared the sentiments of 
the Pharisees, but they were “ direct actionists,” 
insisting on war against Rome. Their agitation at 
last brought on the great Jewish war (A. D. 66-70), 
with its terrible result. (8) The Herodians were 
a political faction which supported the house of 
Herod and the Romans. (4) The Proselytes were 
Gentile worshippers of Jehovah. Large numbers 
of high-minded Gentiles were attracted by the 
purer faith and higher morality of the Jews. Their 
number in Christ’s time is estimated as high as 
700,000. There were two classes of them: (a) 
Proselytes of the Gate, which may mean that they 
went as far as to the gate of full Judaism, which is 
circumcision, or that they were permitted to pro- 
ceed only to a certain gate in the Temple beyond 
which the uncircumcised were warned not to pro- 
ceed under penalty of death. They bound them- 
selves to avoid blasphemy, idolatry, uncleanness, 
theft, etc. They are also called, “ God-fearing 


42 The Writings of the New Testament 


39 


men.” Most of the proselytes belonged to this 
class. (Cornelius.) (0) Proselytes of Right- 
eousness, who fulfilled “ all righteousness,” that is, 
they were circumcised, and kept the law. 

Religious Services and Sacred Building. The 
Jews had two systems of religious service, the 
Temple system, which was hierarchical, formal and 
exclusive, and the Synagogue system, which was 
popular and free. 

(1) The Temple Area at Jerusalem in 
Christ’s time was bounded by a wall with seven 
gates. Inside were three quadrangular “ Courts,” 
rising one above another, separated by walls of 
partition, and encircled by marble cloisters. The 
outer was, “ The Court of Gentiles.” Within and 
above this, entered through nine gates, 60 feet high, 
overlaid with gold and silver, was the “ Court of 
Israel”? for the Jews only, the eastern half being 
set apart as the “ Court of Women,” the limit of 
approach for Jewish women. On a higher terrace 
was the “Court of the Priests.” The Temple 
Proper, 120 feet long, stood on a yet higher level 
at the western end of the ‘‘ Priests Court,” opposite 
the Brazen Altar. Its front was a porch 180 feet 
high, covered with gold and precious stones. Be- 
hind it was the Holy Place, opening through the 
great veil into the Holy of Holies. Inthe Temple 
services 20,000 priests, assisted by twice as many 
Levites, in 24 courses, each serving one week in 
turn, were in charge. The Levites were guards, 
porters, musicians, etc. Only priests could sacri- 


Religious World of Jesus 43 


fice or burn incense. Two daily public services 
were held at 9 A. M. and 3 P. M. 

(2) The Synagogue. (1) Origin. During 
the Captivity where no Temple Service was possi- 
ble—(2) Universality. Wherever ten heads of 
families could be found, there a Synagogue would 
be established, in and outside of Palestine. In 
Jerusalem were 460, and every nationality had its 
own (Acts 6:9).—(8) Arrangements of the 
Building: Oblong in shape, it contained an “ ark ” 
—a chest for the sacred rolls—at the end of the 
building looking toward Jerusalem, a platform and 
a reading desk. The seats were carefully graded 
according. to tank. The “chief seats’’ for the 
elders and leading men were elevated, around the 
“ark.” Gentile visitors were allowed near the 
door. A lattice gallery where women could wor- 
ship without being seen—(4) Officers: Three 
rulers of the Synagogue (one of whom was the 
ruler), who conducted the worship and possessed 
limited judicial authority. The “servant,” (Luke 
4: 20), who united the functions of sexton, school- 
master and constable, to pass judgment on offend- 
ers.—(5) Services: Held on Saturday, Monday 
and Thursday. They consisted of prayer, reading 
and remarks. ‘The selections were from the Law 
and the Prophets, according to an appointed order 
(Acts 15: 21), called Parashim and Haphtharim, 
like our church pericopes. 

The Sacred Year. ‘The Jews of Christ’s time 
observed seven solemnities, six of them feasts, and 


44 The Writings of the New Testament 


one a fast; only the first five were appointed by 
the Law of Moses. Trumpets and Purim are not 
mentioned in the New Testament. ‘Their order in 
the Jewish calendar is as follows: 


Name Time Event Commemorated 
Passover, 14 Nisan—April, Exodus. 
Pentecost, Sivan—May, Harvest Home and 


Giving of the Law. 
Trumpets, 1 Tizri—Sep- 


tember, New Year. 
Atonement, 10 Tizri—Octo- 

ber, Repentance. 
Tabernacles, 15 Tizri—Octo- 

ber, Life in the Desert. 
Dedication, Chisleu 25—De- Rededication of the 

cember, Temple. 
Purim, 14 Adar—March Plot of Haman. 


The Religion of the Samaritans. This people 
was a mixed race which sprang up in Northern 
Israel after the fall of the Kingdom of Israel, in 
B. C. 722, as a result of the intermarriage of the 
heathen Assyrian colonists (II Kings 17: 24-41) 
with the remnants of the Israelites left in the land. 
On this account they were bitterly hated by the 
Jews (John 4:9) and their offer to assist in the 
rebuilding of the second Temple was rejected 
(Ezra 4). Upon this they built their own temple 
on Mount Gerizim, where they conducted a sort 
of Jehovah worship (II Kings 17:25). Of the 
Jewish canon they accepted only the Pentateuch. 
They observed the Passover and still do so. They 


Religious World of Jesus 45 


expected the Messiah, not as a king, but to teach 
them all things (Deut. 18: 15; John 4: 25). 


2. Pagan Religious Conditions 


Literature: 
Consult the Bible dictionaries and encyclopedias on the 
various subjects. 
lover, “ The Conflict of Religions in the Early Roman 


Angus, “Environment of Early Christianity,” 74, 85, 108, 
133-134. 

Case, “ Evolution of Early Christianity,” 210, 284, 308, 331. 

Kennedy, ' ‘St. Paul and the Mystery Religions.” 

Sheldon, “ The Mystery Religions and the New Testa- 
ment.” 


Hatch, “ The Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages Upon 
the Christian Church.” 


Dark and Bright Aspects. Here also we 
should distinguish between a dark and a bright 
side. Usually the first is overemphasized, but the 
new science of comparative religions enables truth- 
loving scholars to see the other side also. The 
dark side is well known. At the time of Christ, 
disbelief in popular religion had become very gen- 
eral among the educated class, who despised cur- 
rent mythology. But the same people became the 
ready dupes of all kinds of quacks and foreign 
cults, being imposed upon by Oriental priests, sor- 
cerers, soothsayers and astrologers, like Apollonius 
of Tyana (3 B. c. to 96 a. D.). The practice of 
deifying and worshipping the emperors exerted a 
most degrading influence on the religious life. 
Harlots, like Poppzea, Nero’s wife, were deified, 
and sacrifices were offered for the preservation of 


46 The Writings of the New Testament 


“Nero's divine voice.’ But there was also a 
bright side. Religion was far from being dead. 
It was a subject of very general interest, being 
discussed by poets, philosophers and even states- 
men. ‘The very criticism of traditional religion by 
educated men evinces interest in the subject. Au- 
gustus strove to restore religion to its former posi- 
tion, and even assumed personally the office of 
Pontifex Maximus. Many pagans, to satisfy their 
religious cravings, embraced Judaism; (“ prose- 
lytes”). Moreover, satirists like Juvenal and 
Lucian who are usually quoted by Christian writers 
to prove the complete decadence of pagan religion, 
have been proven to be perverters of the real facts. 
As 1s the case in our own days, it did not suit the 
purpose of these humorists to portray in their true 
colors—if indeed they had the ability to appreciate 
—the deeper current of religious life among their 
people. 

Four systems of pagan religion in Christ’s 
time may be distinguished: (1) the traditional re- 
ligion; (2) the religion of the philosophers; (3) 
the Emperor-Worship; (4) the Mystery Cults. 

(1) In the popular religion, long before the first 
century, the gods of Greece had been merged in 
thought into those of ancient Rome in such a way 
that a regular Pantheon developed, consisting of a 
great variety of gods, some purely Greek, like 
Apollo, some purely Roman, like Janus. Gradu- 
ally a kind of theology was worked out to bring 
some uniformity into the contradictory beliefs 


Religious World of Jesus V6 


of the people, but this endeavor was as little 
successful as similar attempts by Christian the- 
ologians. The poems of Homer were still the 
Bible of traditional pagan religion and the stand- 
ard of orthodoxy. The more grotesque and im- 
moral features of the Homeric gods were ex- 
plained away by the allegorical method of inter- 
pretation. 

(2) By the Religion of Philosophy we under- 
stand the more clarified and elevated religious ideas 
held by the educated class in the Greco-Roman 
world. It showed many varieties, corresponding to 
the different types of philosophy then current. 
Their attitude toward popular religion was one of 
criticism. They expressed, e. g., strong dissent 
from many of the more grotesque features of con- 
temporaneous polytheism, especially to the scandal- 
ous immoralities attributed to the gods by Homer. 
“ Self-respecting men would never act so disgrace- 
fully, much less would real gods thus deport them- 
selves,” says Cicero in his De Nat. Deorum. As 
to the origin of the idea of gods, Democritus 
anticipated Schopenhauer and other modern phi- 
losophers in tracing the beliefs in gods to the fear 
which the more terrible phenomena of nature— 
thunder, lightning, earthquakes, eclipses—awak- 
ened in men. Others held that beings considered 
as gods were merely deified heroes. Pantheism, 
the belief that the universe itself was god, was 
strongly advocated by many Greeks and Orientals. 
This view resulted in the defication, not only of 


48 'The Writings of the New Testament 


the heavenly bodies but also of the elements—fire, 
air, water, and earth, as well as the phenomena of 
time—seasons, months, weeks, days, hours. Radi- 
cal philosophers advocated a religion of fatalism. 
For example, Demetrius, in the fourth century 
B. C., considered mere chance, fortune (réyy), the 
cause of all that happens. By far the larger number 
of the educated classes in the first century leaned 
more and more toward what is called syncretism, 
which denotes a system of merging the different 
religions, in the belief that the gods of the various 
national religions were only different names for 
the same being. It is still polytheistic. For ex- 
ample, it was an act of syncretism when the 
Romans identified their Minerva with the Greek 
Athena and their Jupiter with the Greek Zeus. 
This growing sentiment accounts for the tolerant 
attitude of Rome toward foreign religions. Em- 
peror Severus (third century) is said to have 
placed in his private sanctuary even the busts of 
Moses and Jesus beside those of Jupiter and 
Apollos. 

(3) Emperor Worship——From hoary antiquity 
priests and rulers succeeded in making the people 
believe that kings were divine beings. In ancient 
Egypt and Babylon they were believed to be divine 
through an incarnation, and were credited with 
preéxistence and miraculous, divine conception. 
In Greece and Rome the ruler was believed to be a 
man who by heroic deeds exalted himself to be a 
god. In the Roman empire this Emperor-Wor- 


Religious World of Jesus 49 


ship became increasingly popular, because it served 
the need of a unifying principle in this diversified 
empire. The mode of worship usually consisted 
in burning incense before the bust of the emperor, 
erected in public places. This was considered a 
test of patriotism and loyalty and the refusal was 
punished as treason to the state. This Emperor 
cult throws light on several otherwise dark pas- 
sages of the New Testament, such as Rev. 13: 16; 
it also explains the reasons for the bloody persecu- 
tions of the Church until 311 a. D. and in subse- 
quent ages. The Christians were charged with 
treason because they preached the kingship of Jesus 
(Acts 17: 7) and refused to worship the Emperor 
ON BEDE 

(4) The Mystery Cults——The word stands for 
a religious system the ideas and rites of which 
must be closely guarded by those possessing them, 
the “initiated.” Among the large number of 
mystery religions, the “ Eleusinian Mysteries” 
were the most famous.—Features common to all of 
these mysteries are the following: (1) All are in 
essence nature-worship, the deities being merely 
personifications of nature and its processes: the 
female deity representing the principle of fertility 
and the male god that of redemption and both 
symbolizing the sterility of nature in winter and 
the returning life in spring. (2) All claim to 
satisfy the deep craving in man for individual sal- 
vation which in its primitive expression is as old 
as the race. (3) All are “ Saviour-religions,” that 


50 The Writings of the New Testament 


is, they offer help coming from outside of man, 
through a god, instead of “ Attainment-Religions,” 
according to which man himself must work out his 
own salvation, as Stoicism insisted. (4) All hold 
out as the chief blessing to the initiated a blessed 
immortality in the presence of the gods. (5) Most 
of these cults also promised present salvation, in 
the form of moral improvement, by means of a 
mystical union between the deity and the initiated. 
(6) All tried to meet man’s craving for socia- 
bility. They were “brotherhoods,” “ lodges,” 
“churches,” if you please. (7) All prescribed an 
elaborate ritual. (8) All rites were calculated to 
work chiefly on the emotions, to impress rather 
than indoctrinate. 


Note—Some knowledge of these mystery cults will be of 
assistance in the study of the New Testament, (1) because 
terms and allusions to these “ mysteries” are found through- 
out the New Testament, especially in Paul’s writings (1 Cor. 
2:6, 7; Col. 2:21). (2) These cults show that Christianity 
was neither the first nor the only religion which offered 
“salvation” in the first century. Neither the concept nor the 
name originated with the Church. (3) But the survival of 
Christianity in spite of these most tremendous conflicts, 
carried on with physical as well as intellectual attacks, 
proves conclusively that the Gospel is in a special sense the 
power of God unto salvation, and that Christianity did not 
originate as one of these many “ Saviour-religions,” as some 
radical scholars, like Jensen, Drew and Smith hold. (4) 
These saviour religions, however, furnished the preachers of 
the true “Saviour religion” a most excellent approach 
(Acts 17:23). It is a psychological truth confirmed by 
experience that religious progress is exceedingly difficult 
with minds which are tabula rasa. 


CHAPTER VI 


SOCIAL AND MORAL CONDITIONS IN THE 
BURST CERN TORY 


Literature: 

Consult the Bible dictionaries and encyclopedias on the 
different subjects. 

Edersheim, “In the Days of Christ. , 

Delitzsch, “ Jewish Artisan Life.” 

“ Quo Vadis, Bi Chapy13) 

deed ‘Environment of Early Christianity,” pp. 37, 44, 50, 


52, 55, 66 
Lecky, ‘History of European Morals.” 
Clement, “Rome the Eternal City” (2 vol.). 
Gilbert, « Jesus,” pp. 87-114 (“ The World of Jesus”). 
Davis, “ The Influence of Wealth in Imperial Rome.” 
Farrar, Early Days of Christianity,” pp. 1-52. 
p tucker, * ‘Life in the Roman World of Nero and St 
aul 
Uhlhorn, “Conflict of Christianity with Heathenism” 
(Chaps. XI and XV). 


1. Social and Moral Conditions Among 
the Jews 

As a nation, the Jews in Palestine as well as in 
the Diaspora, stood higher in morality than the 
heathen world; but Christ’s frequent denunciations 
of divorce, the oppression by the rich, the hypoc- 
risy and the corruption of the religious leaders, as 
well as Romans, Chap. 2, show that even the Jews 
fell far below the ideal. 


2. Social Classes in the Grzeco-Roman 
World 


Society in the first century was greatly diversified 
51 


52 The Writings of the New Testament 


both because of the mixture of nationalities and 
on account of wide differences between individuals 
as to their stations in life. ‘There were four social 
classes then, as now. (1) Court life was almost 
wholly bad. The conduct of the emperors and of 
most of the known “ court-ladies”’ prove it. Old 
Roman simplicity had long ago made room for 
Oriental ideas, customs and adornments. (2) 
The class of the very rich comprised the office- 
holders, the landlords, and the military officers. 
These two classes combined to rule the people, 
whatever form of government obtained. (3) A 
fairly prosperous middle class, the “ bourgeoisie.” 
They were the traders, and peace, order and good 
roads encouraged commerce. This class was, how- 
ever, small, for labor was considered a disgrace. 
Among the 1,200,000 inhabitants of Rome at 
Christ’s time’ (Cie. De Off) 1112) there ayers 
scarcely 2,000 proprietors. (4) The largest class 
consisted of “free” laborers and slaves. Many 
of the latter were skilled workingmen, tradesmen 
and educators. 


3. Slavery in Christ’s Time 


The population of the entire Roman empire was 
120 millions. Of these 40 millions were in Europe, 
7 millions in Italy. Of the 120 millions, 60 millions 
were slaves, 40 millions tributaries and freedmen, 
and only 20 millions citizens. The army numbered 
400,000, the navy 50,000. The number of slaves 
increased with Roman conquests. In Italy there 


Social Conditions in the First Century 53 


were 1,300,000, and in the whole empire, 6,000,- 
000. They were harshly treated, sometimes 
thrown into ponds to sweeten the meat of the fishes. 
A law was advocated by which, when a master was 
murdered, all his slaves (as being considered under 
suspicion) should be put to death. Slaves were 
frequently liberated by their masters (“ freedmen ” 
or “ Libertines,’ Acts 6:9). But in such cases 
most of these merely swelled the numbers of the 
dependent proletariat, who eked out a living with 
difficulty in the overcrowded centers of population. 
For survival of the fittest in society does not mean 
elimination but rather distress for the unfit; for 
they remain with us. This class became so large 
and sometimes so threatening that even the rulers 
concerned themselves with the situation, from 
political, if not from humane motives. For the 
enormous wealth in the hands of a few created a 
sense of insecurity and terror. The slave insurrec- 
tion led by Spartacus was one of the bloodiest. ‘To 
prevent such clashes, wealthy men and the govern- 
“ment distributed corn, while the Cynic-Stoic 
preachers of morality tried to administer temporary 
relief by teaching men to endure hardship unfal- 
teringly. 


4, Moral Conditions in Christ’s Time 
The moral degradation of the period when 
Christ lived has rarely been equalled and perhaps 
never exceeded in the annals of mankind. It may 
be judged from the following facts: (1) Paul’s 


54 The Writings of the New Testament 


dark picture of pagan wickedness in Rom, 1: 18- 
32, which should not be regarded as a judgment 
from too lofty a moral standpoint, for all that he 
says is confirmed by pagan authors. (2) The 
excavated objects of Pompeii give us a faint 
glimpse of the horrible nature of the vice and crime 
at this period as a testimony to the fruit of heathen- 
ism. (3) The bare mention of the names of the 
emperors condemns a people which endured them. 
(4) Luxury passed all bounds and was too horrible 
for description. Among the rich, the disgusting 
practice was in vogue to prepare for dinner by 
taking an emetic. Emperor Vitellius, in less than 
eight months, spent several millions on feasts. 
Games on the most lavish scale continued for weeks 
and months. (5) The very rites of religion were 
used to satisfy unnatural lust. (6) Family life 
among the Romans had once been a sacred thing, 
and for 520 years divorce had been unknown. But 
under the Empire marriage was regarded with 
disfavor. Women, says Seneca, married in order 
to be divorced and were divorced in order to 
marry. ‘They counted the years, not by the Con- . 
suls, but by the number of their divorces. Chil- 
dren were regarded as a burden, and their educa- 
tion handed over to slaves. The exposure of in- 
fants and the practice of abortion was general. 
Tacitus wrote his Germania as a “ tendency book,” 
intended for the purpose of holding up before his 
educated, but demoralized, countrymen a people, 
uncivilized, but possessing great virtues. In it he 


Social Conditions in the First Century 55 


says of Rome: “ Currumpere et corrumpi saeculum 
est”’ (to corrupt and be corrupted is the spirit of 
the times). But it must be added that high ideals 
and persons of noble lives were not wanting 
entirely. 

Note—The above six chapters give a faint idea of the 
environment (the “ Umwelt”) of the N. T. writings and a 
careful study of them will furnish a background which will 


greatly assist the student in understanding the N. T. books 
as a whole as well as individual passages. 


Chronology of the Apostolic Age 


The following chart may serve the student of 
the following chapters for quick orientation and 
reference, though in the nature of the case most of 
the dates are only of approximate value. (See, 
Robertson, “Syllabus for N. T. Studies,’ VII- 

XII.) 


The Life of Christ 


Bir One OWN tUe) DADLISh, wie ss eicteigalaeeas oe June 25,B.¢C 5 
MEL OA OSS GeLTISt Rc Pace yee ot se 6 ek December 25, B. Cc. 5 
RPIECUINCISION +S Gh) CSIIS ae oe ous v'els's aie'e's cays January I, B. Cc. 4 
Presentation in the Temple...... Biraideta et February 2, B. C. 4 
Pye p Lage he Hg ba UCD Oo 8 By gS tan iN a Ia MOL A SRD B. C. 4-3 
The Boy Jesus at the Temple.............. April 8, a. vp. 8 
Beginning of John the Baptist’s Ministry..Summer, A. D. 26 
pening ofo@brist's) Ministry... sls vs ee 3 8 January, A. D. 27 
MeatwOr Onn. the baptist sidacey ety cee es March, A. D. 29 
Entry into Jerusalem on Palm Sunday...... April 2, A. D. 30 
Institution of the Lord’s Supper, Thursday, April 6, a. D. 30 
Cruciteciom, and Burials soc 0... Friday, April 7, A. D. 30 
Pe SILUPEGUOI: pou ake ails sige vibe oh Sunday, April 9, A. D. 30 
PRALELISIC eric is dette te eal, ahs Thursday, May 18, A. D. 30 
The Apostolic Church 
MUTILOCUSE MAT SIU hi id came parce oles Sunday, May 28, a. D. 30 
Mme rMOTeOte tenella. cvs s fadyGes ne woven ctenes A. D. 35 
RrereiCHMO Le PAn lu ewe n P Loe ah Aye pen Nn A. D. 30 


56 ‘The Writings of the New Testament 


Paulin ArabiatandJerusalemiyie vies se casees A. D. 36-39 
Six ¥ ears, 01) Silence in Paul's Life ies csc tsme tale 30-45 
Mattyr's Death of James the tidery)..)..tbtecs see ees be 44 
Ranls one lyear s work ati Antioch yya uy. «ste senaas 

PAUL SW RILSte WiissiOnaLy h) OULUEVE ny amen nats a Cee ie 46-49 
The Apostolic Council at: Jerusalem.) os... 0.02. 383 50 
Paulisiisecond) Missionary, OUrney ie wea pee eee 51-54 
Pads’) nird Missionary JOURNEY se seu oeics Soe welts ne 54-58 
Paul’s Imprisonment at-Jerusalem and Cesarea.......58-60 
Pals Voyare toiRomeusiy ee chee sun ee Ue omen 60-01 
Paul's (First: Roman (Imprisonment) tuoi. os eek eee 61-63 
Deathiot) James, the Lords! Brother, oe pe eer ay 62 
Panlspeourths Missionary: JOurneyis ue ee a ae aaa 63-05 
Paul’s Second Roman Imprisonment and Deaths. = 66-67 
Peter s(Death oats a Whol een Gur nnn Aeon Utd vem ORLA ee 67 
Westruchon! Oly ereSalem: wer oo wa aa Rone ene August, 70 
Last Years of the Apostle John............cescccece 70-100 


General Review of Part I 


1. Geography.—Names, physical and political divisions of 
Palestine—Name important provinces and islands of the 
Roman empire 

2. History—Name foreign nations ruling Palestine since 
722 B. C—Rule of Herod the Great and the rulers of the 
Palestinian provinces after Herod’s death.—An account of 
the Jewish war and the revolt under Hadrian—The two 
branches of the Jews and the method of taxation——The 
Roman emperors of the first century. 

3. Culture and Civilization —Jewish contribution: the five 
classes of Jewish literature—Greek contribution: Greek lan- 
guage; the principal schools of Greek philosophy.—Roman 
contribution, 

4. Religious Conditions.—The three Jewish sects; Jewish 
factions; the two systems of Jewish worship; the Jewish 
sacred year.—The Samaritan religion The four systems of 
Greco-Roman religion. 

5. Social and Moral Conditions.—Different social classes; 
moral life of Jews and Gentiles :—family, children. 


PeACn ie LI 


General Introduction to 
The New ‘Testament 


CHAPTER VII 


CHARACTER, NAME AND CLASSIFICATION 
OF THE N. T. WRITINGS 


Literature: ; 

Consult the Bible dictionaries and encyclopedias on the 
different subjects. 

Souter, “Text and Canon of the N. T.,” pp. 156-158. 

Gregory, “Canon and Text of the N. T.,” p. 467. 

General Introduction treats of the N. T. as a 
whole, as a collection of books:—of its character, 
name, classification, form, language, canon, criti- 
cism, interpretation, etc. 

Note—As in Special Introduction, in Part III, frequent 
references will occur to the language, the manuscripts, the 


canon, etc., of the New Testament, it will facilitate our work 
to have General Introduction precede Special Introduction. 


Character of the N. T. Literature 


The N. T. is not one logically connected book, 
but a loose collection of twenty-seven pamphlets 
and leaflets—a small and very diversified library, 
each part being written independently of the others, 
within a period of about forty years, for a definite 
purpose and with no thought of being or becoming 
a part of a larger whole. 


37 


58 The Writings of the New Testament 


The Collective Name, “ New Testament” 


The title of the N. T. collection in the Greek 
manuscripts is H KAINH AIA@HKH (“ He Kaine 
Diatheke’’), which is taken from the words of 
Christ in Luke 22: 20 and I Cor. 11: 25. 

The Greek term. “‘ Diatheke’’ is derived from 
the verb dcaréinu:, and its exact meaning in classical 
Greek, and probably also in Heb. 9:16, 17, is, 
therefore, “ disposition,” or “ arrangement,’ and 
hence, “the last will and testament ”’ of a person. 
The Latin Church Fathers translated the Greek 
title in this sense: ‘“‘Novum ‘Testamentum ” 
(‘New Testament”), and their translation has 
been adopted by subsequent translators into all 
other languages.—But in the LXX, and in the text 
of the N. T. books, é:a%jey is used in the sense of 
the Hebrew “berith,’ and the Greek cédvdney 
(“syntheke’’), which denotes a covenant between 
God and man, a mutual agreement, not a one-sided 
arrangement, like a “ will.” (Jer. 31: 31; Lukewt: 
72; Gal. 3: 15.) —The American Standard Bible of 
1900 has therefore rendered a distinct service to 
exact Bible study by adding this meaning to the 
time-honored title. (Look it up!) 

In all but one of the N. T. passages, the term 
applies to the transaction itself; only in II Cor. 
3: 14, and very generally since the second century, 
it also signifies the documents, witnessing to the 
transaction and containing the terms of the cove- 
nant. ‘To-day we use the word in both senses. 

When and by whom the name “ The New Cove- 


Character, Name and Classification 59 


nant’ was first attached to the collection of these 
27 books is not known. 

By way of contrast, the ancient Church named 
the canonical books of the Jews, “‘ Old Covenant ” 
(II Cor. 8:14). The Jews themselves called their 
sacred books “ Scriptures” (II Peter 3: 16). 


Classification of the N. T. Books 


The N. T. books may be differently grouped, 
according to one’s object in view: 

(1) According to the general character of their 
contents they fall into three classes:—Five his- 
torical, twenty-one doctrinal, and one prophetic 
books. (Memorize them in this order!) 


Note—This threefold division is found in all Greek edi- 
tions and translations. But the order of the writings within 
these divisions differs in the various editions. In some 
Greek N. T. the order of the Gospels varies and in most of 
them the seven general epistles come immediately after Acts, 
followed by the Pauline epistles, while in all modern trans- 
lations the order of these two epistle groups is reversed.—In 
the English N. T. the order among the general epistles is: 
Hebrews, James, I and II Peter, I, II and III John, Jude, 
while in the German N. T. the order is: I and II Peter, I, 
II and Il] John, Hebrews, James, Jude. 


(2) According to Time of Composition:— 


(1) The oldest N. T. book is James’ letter....... 45-50 A. D. 
ee SEE UT UP CTHSTIES Li seine cote e trial ce Wlalgoieis ewed ;53-66 
(3) The General epistles, Revelation and Hebrews, 60-75 
(4) The synoptic Gospels and Acts.............. 66-75 
Pe PLOUUEGIOSNGL hy eer a piete tac wis co Here eee about 90 


More exact dates will be discussed in Special In- 
troduction. 
(8) According to Authorship.—Name the nine 


60 'The Writings of the New Testament 


authors, giving in each case the books he has writ- 
ten. Four of these authors were Apostles 
(which?); two were companions of Apostles 
(which?); two were natural brothers of Jesus 
(which?) ; one was a Gentile by descent (which ?). 

(4) According to Critical Opinion regarding 
their authorship. 

(a) Universally accepted:—Synoptists, Acts, I 
and II Cor., Galatians, Romans, I Peter, I John. 

(b) Slightly disputed:—I and II Thess., the 
Imprisonment Epistles, James, Jude, Revelation, II 
and III John, Hebrews. 

(c) Seriously disputed:—Fourth Gospel, Paul’s 
Pastoral Epistles, II Peter. 

(Details will be discussed in Special Introduc- 
tion. ) 

(5) According to the progressive development 
of teaching, stressing the various types of doc- 
trine:— 

(a) Books recording Christ’s teaching, in its two 
types:—Synoptic Gospels and John’s Gospel. 

(b) Books containing the Apostolic primitive 
teaching:—Acts Chaps. 1-12; James, I and II 
Peter, and Jude. 

(c) Books containing Paul’s teaching:—Acts, 
Chaps. 18-28 and his thirteen epistles. 

(d) Books containing John’s type of Christian 
teaching:—The five books of John. 


Note—For intelligent Bible study a combination of No. 2 
and 5 will give the best results. 


CHAPTER VIII 


ORIGINAL LANGUAGE AND FORM OF THE 
NEW TESTAMENT 


1. Original Language of the New Testament 


Literature: 

Consult the Bible dictionaries and encyclopedias on the 
various subjects. 

Cobern, “ New Archeological Discoveries,” pp. 98-131. 

Schaff, “ Companion of the Greek N. T.,” pp. 1-80, 609. 

Milligan, “ Here and There Among the Papyri.” 

Angus, “ Environment of Early Christianity,” p. 209. 

Schaff-Herzog’s “ Encyclopedia,” V, 212. 

For elementary study of N. T. Greek:— 

Green, “ Brief Introduction to N. T. Greek”; Huddilston, 
“Essentials of N. T. Greek”; Robertson, “ Short Grammar 
of the Greek N. T.”; Machen, “N. T. Greek for Beginners.” 


THE Greek language being the intellectual bond 
of the civilized world in the Apostolic Age, the 
books of the N. T. were all written in that lan- 
guage. The supposition that some of them, like 
Matthew, John, James, and others, may first have 
been written in Aramaic and then translated, is 
quite plausible in view of the bilingual preaching 
of the Apostles, but definite proof is wanting. 

The N. T. Greek is known as Hellenistic Greek. 
Recent discoveries of papyri manuscripts in Egypt 
have disproved the old view that this was a dialect 
developed by the Jews alone, a “ Jewish Greek.” 
It was rather the common Greek of the first cen- 

61 


62 The Writings of the New Testament 


tury, spoken by all who used that language, modi- 
fied only to the extent of providing terms to ex- 
press the new religious ideas of Judaism and 
Christianity. It differed from the common Greek 
only as our “ pulpit English” differs from ordi- 
nary English. “ 


Note—The N. T. Greek differs from the popular Greek 
as follows: 

(1) In using Hebrew or Aramaic words, such as Abba, 
amen, mammon, manna, pascha, rabbi, rabbuni, sabbath, 
satan ; 

(2) In Hebraistic phrases and modes of construction: to 
taste death, to accept the face or person (partial); son of 
(belonging to) ; by two and two (pairwise) ; 

(3) In greater simplicity of style and construction of 
sentences by way of succession and parallelism rather than 
logical sequence. (Sermon on Mount, and Parables) ; 

(4) In putting into old Greek words Christian meanings: 
angel, apostle, flesh, gospel, faith, love, hope, mercy, peace, 
light, life, repentance, conversion, regeneration, redemption, 
justification, grace, Kingdom of heaven, Church. 

(5) The N. T. contains about 31 Latinisms, mostly terms 
of war, politics and business, chiefly in Mark, but also in 
Luke and Matthew. Ex.:—centurion, legion, pretorium, 
colony, census, denarius (penny, 16 cents) and many proper 
names, 


2. The Externals of the Greek New 


Testament 

Literature: 

Consult the Bible dictionaries and encyclopedias on the 
various subjects. 

Souter, “ Text and Canon of the N. T.,” -9. 

Gregory, ‘ ‘Canon and Text of the N. 7. a PP. 207-383; 
407-478. 

Cobern, “ New Archeological Discoveries,” pp. 3-88. 

Schaff-Herzog, “ Encyclopedia,’ Vol. II, pp. 100-102; 
113-114. 


The writing material used by the N. 'T. authors 


Original Language 63 


was papyrus (paper), made from the bark of an 
Egyptian tree, and therefore of slight durability. 
This and their frequent handling account for the 
fact that the autographs have perished, though 
recently a large number of papyri from the first 
century were discovered in Egypt. In the fourth 
century vellum and parchment (from “ Per- 
gamus”) and about the 8th century paper made of 
cotton, and later of linen, came into use. 


Note—The high cost of vellum and parchment led occa- 
sionally to the erasing of the N. T. text in order to use the 
material for copying other writings, as in the case of the 
“Codex Ephraim.” Such copies are called “ palimpsests,” or 
rescriptus, 7. é., “ written over” (Souter, 25). 


The form of the papyri manuscripts was the roll. 
With the parchment the book form came into use, 
with sheets of four double leaves all of which were 
usually bound together in a volume, with the writ- 
ing in three or four columns; later the continuous 
mode of writing over the entire width of the page 
appears. 

The instrument of writing was a reed pen (cal- 
amus, II John 12; III John 13). Goose quills and 
steel pens came into use about the 6th century. 

The ink was made of lamp-black mixed with 
gum and dissolved in water. Not long ago, a 
receptacle with ink was discovered near Haltern in 
Westphalia, Germany, where 11 B. c. the Roman 
general Drusus had his camp, and the chemists 
believe that the ink dates from that time. Its 
main ingredient was soot. 

Two styles of Letters:—(a) The oldest extant 


64 The Writings of the New Testament 


manuscripts are written in uncials (Latin: “uncia” 
inch): stiff, unconnected letters, placed at equal 
distances apart, without spacing between the words 
or clauses, without accents, breathings and iota 
subscript. But few traces of marking paragraphs 
and aspiration signs are found in these manu- 
scripts. In Latin type the text would appear like 
this, only worse: IAMTHETRUTH.—(b) In the 
9th century the uncial writing gradually merged 
into the cursives, and this became prevalent in the 
tenth, uncials being confined to copies of special 
value. Accents and iota subscript now came into 
general use. 

Punctuation Marks.—Our present system of 
punctuation for separating clauses and sentences 
was introduced into Latin books in the latter part 
of the fifteenth century by Manutius, a Venetian 
printer, who is also responsible for our full stop, 
colon, semi-colon, comma, marks of interrogation 
and exclamation, parenthesis and dash, hyphen, 
apostrophe and quotation marks. With some 
changes this system has been introduced into our 
present Greek texts, 

Note—The Greek poet Aristophanes, before Christ, and 
the German Emperor, Charles the Great, 800 a. p., had 
invented similar systems, but they soon fell into disuse. 

Divisions into Chapters and Verses.—The first 
to divide the Gospels into sections for the purpose 
of easy reference was Eusebius (4 cent.). The 
present division of chapters dates from Hugo a 
Sacto Caro, in the 18th century, and was trans- 


Original Language 65 


ferred from the Vulgate into the first printed edi- 
tions of the Greek text. Robert Stavens, the 
printer, made the present division into verses in 
his edition of 1551. 

In some cases these divisions are incorrect, in- 
terfering with the logical connection of the sec- 
wonscucomills Lele CorierL): 


CHAPTER IX 
NEW TESTAMENT TEXTUAL CRITICISM 


Literature: | 

Consult Bible dictionaries and encyclopedias on the dif- 
ferent subjects. 

Souter, ‘ Text and Canon,” pp. 111-145. 

Schaff, “ Companion to the Greek N. T.,” pp. 225-287; 
497-525. 

Gregory, “ Canon and Text,” pp. 437-466. 

Vollmer, Philip, ‘The Reformation a Liberating Force,” 
p. 12. 


The Two Kinds of Biblical Criticism 


Biblical Criticism is a method of Bible Study 
_ with the sole object of ascertaining the truth with 
reference to the origin of the Bible. It is divided 
into :— 

(1) Textual Criticism, the aim of which is to 
restore the text of the originals; also called 
“Lower Criticism,” because it prepares the basis 
for literary or historical criticism, which latter is 
therefore called “ higher ” criticism. 

(2) Higher Criticism, which deals with the 
origin of each N. T. book separately. (See next 
chapter. ) 

Note 1:—The term “criticism,” from the Greek, zpiva, 
to sift, separate, examine, means careful examination, and 
must not be confused with its colloquial use of “ fault- 
finding.” ‘To criticise means to distinguish between the true 


and the false, between the correct and the incorrect, between 
the well-founded and the ill- founded, between things that 


66 


Textual Criticism 67 


are facts and things that are not facts. Criticism is a quest 
for the truth. It also shows the excellencies of a work. 

Note 2:—As to its materials, both kinds of criticism are 
as old as Bible study itself, but as separate theological dis- 
ciplines they are children of modern research and the 
tendency to specialization. 


Need and Aim of Textual Criticism 


Its need arises: (1) From the loss of the origi- 
nals. ‘These originals, so Eusebius tells us, were 
burned when the Christian Churches were de- 
stroyed in the days of Diocletian and other per- 
secutors. This also explains why our oldest MSS. 
go no farther back than the fourth century. (2) 
From the vast variety of readings in extant manu- 
scripts, which necessitates an inquiry into the 
material from which our present Greek text is de- 
rived, and a decision on the rival claims of the 
various readings.—The sole aim of Textual Crit- 
icism is therefore to restore the text of the origi- 
nals, to ascertain what the Bible authors actually 
did write. Sectarian notions and private opinions, 
as to what they might or ought to have written, 
are out of the question. 


Number, Value and Origin of Variations 


The highest estimate of variations in the large 
number of the N. T. MSS. is only 150,000, while 
e. g., the few copies of the Roman author ‘Terence 
alone show no less than 30,000 variations. 

As to the value of these variations, at least 19 
out of 20 are analogous to trifling errors in printed 
books, such as differences in the order of words, in 


68 The Writings of the New Testament 


spelling, and hence of no consequence whatever. 
Of the remaining 20th no more than about 400 
affect the meaning; and of these less than 100 in- 
volve any doctrinal or ethical teaching, without, 
however, invalidating any doctrine or moral duty, 
but only reducing the number of proof-texts for 
an important article of faith which is sufficiently 
sustained by other undoubted passages. 

There are three causes of these variations: 

(1) Omissions, caused by the eye or ear of the 
copyist. These are very few and occur mostly in 
cases of similarity of ending, 7. e., where a line or 
sentence closes with the same word as the preced- 
ing one, when the eye would glide from the first 
to the third line, omitting the second (I John 2: 
23). 

(2) Additions, taken from parallel passages, 
O. T. quotations, lectionaries, liturgies, marginal 
notes, oral tradition. Ex.:—Doxology in the 
Lord’s Prayer (Matt. 6: 13); the note about the 
pool of Bethesda, John 5: 3-4; the woman taken in 
adultery, John 7: 53; the three witnesses in heaven, 
I John 5:7. (Examine every one!) 

(3) Misunderstandings, due to the similarity of 
Greek letters, the habit of using abbreviations, the 
resemblance of words in spelling or pronunciation, 
or to the aim of harmonizing. Ex.:—I John 1: 
18: THeos or Utos;—Luke 2:14: Eupoxia or 
Eupoxias;—Rom. 5:1; Acts 20: 28: THrovu or 
Kuriou ;—I Tim. 3:18: THros or Os. (Look 
up every one!) 


Textual Criticism 69 


History of N. T. Criticism 

As early as the third century attempts were 
made to eliminate the differences in the text of the 
various codices and to establish a uniform text, but 
with no lasting results. During the Middle Ages 
little was done toward establishing a purer Greek 
text: (1) because a real science of textual criticism 
was unknown; (2) the Church did not rely on the 
written word as exclusively as later Protestantism ; 
(8) uniformity of the wording in the N. T. was not 
considered essential; (4) a “critical apparatus ” 
was impossible; (5) a large part of the Greek- 
speaking Church was destroyed by Mohammedan- 
ism, while the rest was fighting for its very life; 
(6) the Roman Church regarded the Latin Vul- 
gate as its standard and few of her doctors under- 
stood Greek or Hebrew. The revival of learning 
in West-Europe (Renaissance or Humanism), 
which was greatly stimulated by the fall of Con- 
stantinople in 1453, as it occasioned the flight of 
Greek scholars to the West, greatly encouraged the 
study of Greek, and this again resulted in the 
scrutinizing of the Greek text of the N. T. The 
first printed Greek New Testament—the Complu- 
tensian Polyglot—was printed in 1514, but not 
published before 1521. So the edition of Eras- 
mus, published 1516 at Basel, is considered the 
first. Other editions followed, but all were based 
on that of Erasmus which, with few changes, thus 
became the “ Received Text” (“Textus Recep- 
tus,” abbrev. “ T. R.”), for over 200 years. Being 


70 The Writings of the New Testament 


made before the most important MSS. were 
available and the science of textual criticism was 
developed, the T. R. is very inferior. 

During the 18. and 19. cent. some of the most 
important MSS. (‘ Vaticanus ’’) became available ; 
new MSS. were found (“ Sinaiticus”), and textual 
criticism developed into a real science. Since then 
the combined critical labors of specialists, like 
Wettstein, Griesbach, Lachmann, ‘Tischendorf, 
Westcott, Hort, Nestle and others have given us 
a purified and revised Greek text which in all es- 
sential points may be supposed to agree with the 
originals. 


The Sources for the Restoration of the 
Original Text 


Literature: 

Souter, “ Text and Canon,” pp. 10-93. 

Schaff, “ Companion to the Greek Testament,” pp. 84-141, 
171-224. 

Consult the Bible Dictionaries and encyclopedias on the 
different subjects. 

Gregory, “Canon and Text of the N. T.,” pp. 329-436; 
479-528. 

Cobern, “ New Archeological Discoveries,” PP. 432-528. 

Koenig, “ Deutsche Literaturgeschichte.” 


There are three kinds of sources for restoring 
the original text:—-Greek MSS.; ancient transla- 
tions and quotations in the books of the older 


Church Fathers. The first is the most important 
source. 


1. Greek Copies of the N. T. 


The Greek MSS. are divided into “ Uncials” and 
“Cursives.” The uncials are older, dating from 


Textual Criticism 71 


the 4. cent., and therefore the most valuable.— 
Their number found so far amounts to about 110; 
most of them are fragmentary; only one, the 
Codex Sinaiticus, is complete-—For brevity’s sake 
they are usually quoted by the capital letters of the 
Latin alphabet with the addition of Greek and 
Hebrew letters. The oldest and most important 
uncials are the following:— 

(1) Codex Sinatticus, known as codex ¥, dis- 
covered 1859 by Tischendorf in the Convent of St. 
Catherine at Mt. Sinai, now in the Imperial library 
of Leninegrad, published 1862. Dates from 
the age of Constantine the Great, about 330, writ- 
ten on fine parchment, four columns to a page. 
(Schaff, Companion, 103-311). 

(2) Codex Alexandrinus (A), of the fifth cen- 
tury, presented by Cyril Lucar of Constantinople 
to King Charles I of England in 1628, preserved 
in the British museum, published in photographic 
facsimile 1879. It has several gaps. The first 24 
chapters of Matthew, two chapters of John, and 
8 chapters of II Cor. being missing. It contains 
the epistle of Clement of Rome to the Corinthians 
(defective) and a fragment of some homily: 

(3) Codex Vaticanus (B), from the age of 
Constantine; as old as the Sinaiticus and more 
carefully written, on very thin vellum, in clear neat 
uncial letters, in three volumes. Preserved in the 
Vatican library, for a long time almost inaccessible, 
but at last published in photographic facsimile in 
1889. It breaks off at Heb. 9: 14 in the middle 


72 The Writings of the New Testament 


of the verse with the word KatTuHariel. The 
last chapter of Hebrews, the Pastoral epistles, 
Philemon, and the Apocalypse are missing. Asa 
whole a most valuable MS. (Schaff, Comp. 1138). 

(4) Codex Ephraim (C), a codex rescriptus, 
the works of Ephraim (died 873) being written 
over it, dating from the 5th century, hardly legible 
and very defective, preserved in the National 
Library of Paris and edited by Tischendorf, 1845 
(Schaff’s Comp. 120). 

(5) Codex Bezae (D), once in the possession 
of Beza, the successor to Calvin, presented by him 
to the Uniyersity of Cambridge. It dates from 
the 6th century, contains only the Gospels and 
Acts in a Latin Version, and is full of errors, 
eccentricities and bold interpolations (Comp. 122). 

The extant cursives are written on cotton or 
linen paper; they date from the 9th to the middle 
of the 15th centuries, when the art of printing was 
invented. They are designated by Arabic figures 
and their number amounted in 1890, if we include 
1201 Lectionaries, to about 3553. ‘They present a 
more harmonious text which after the 5th century, 
had assumed a more stereotyped form. 

Discoveries of ancient MSS. of parts of 
the N. T. are still being made, but they are very 
brief and have not been proved to antedate our 
oldest extant and complete MSS. (See Souter, 
19.) 


Textual Criticism 78 


2. Ancient Translations 


Ancient translations are indirect sources for 
ascertaining the original text. To be of value for 
such a purpose they must antedate our oldest 
MSS. ‘The most important are: (1) the “ Jtala” 
(supply: “ versio”), the oldest Latin translation, 
from 2nd century, known only from quotations 
contained in the books of the early Latin Fathers 
(Tertullian, Cyprian, Ambrose, Jerome, Augus- 
tine); full of errors and variations. (2) The 
Vulgate (“versio”), a revision of the Itala made 
by Jerome, in 383-405, (8) The Peshito (“ The 
Simple,” 7. e., popular), in the old Syrian language, 
dates in its present form from the 3rd or 4th cen- 
tury, called the ‘ Queen of ancient Versions,” for 
its faithfulness and idiomatic character. (4) The 
Gothic Version, the oldest German translation, by 
Bishop Ulfilas, made in the 4th century, known as 
the Codex Argenteus, at Upsala, Sweden, a MS. 
of the 5th or 6th century. 


3. Patristic Quotations from the N. T. 


Contained in the writings of the Church Fathers. 
Of value because the writings of Irenzeus, Clem- 
ent of Alexandria, Origen, Tertullian, and other 
ante-Nicene Fathers are older than our oldest 
MSS.—The Greek Fathers are more important 
than the Latin, since they quote the original 
Greek. 

There are three drawbacks to the use of these 
quotations:—Only small portions are quoted, often 


74  'The Writings of the New Testament 


from memory and the text of their writings was 
liable to the same corruption as the N. T. MSS. 
and has in many places been changed from the 
original of its author to conform to the text in 
common use at the time from which our extant 
copies of their works date. Their value is there- 
fore mainly corroborative. 


The Method of Textual Criticism 


The method consists in recording, classifying, 
comparing and weighing, (1) all available MSS. 
and (2) the variations found. These materials 
are called the “ Critical Apparatus.” 

The critic is guided by certain rules based on 
psychological laws and experience, some of which 
are:— 

(1) The consensus of the primary uncials, & 
B, C, and A (especially 8 and B), if sustained by 
other ancient uncials, first-class cursives, ancient 
versions and ante-Nicene citations (before 325) 
outweighs all later authorities and gives us pre- 
sumably the original text. 

(2) The older reading is preferable to the later, 
but mere antiquity is no certain test of superiority, 
since the corruption of the text began at a very 
early date. 

(3) Authorities must be weighed rather than 
numbered. One independent MS. may be worth 
more than a hundred copies which are derived from 
the same original. 

(4) The shorter reading is preferable to the 


Textual Criticism 75 


longer, because additions are more natural than 
abbreviations. 

(5) The more difficult reading is preferable to 
the easier, for transcribers would not intentionally 
substitute an unusual reading for one that was un- 
objectionable. 

(6) That reading is preferable which shows no 
doctrinal bias, whether orthodox or heretical. 


CHAPTER X 


HIGHER CRITICISM OF THE NEW 
TESTAMENT 
Literature: ; 
Consult Bible Dictionaries, Encyclopedias and other books 
on the various subjects, especially: 
Schaff-Herzog’s Encyc. II, 170-177. 
Zenos, “ The Elements of Higher Criticism.” 
Nash, “ History of N. T.. Higher Criticism.” 
Christlieb, “ Modern Doubt and Christian Belief,’ p. 504. 


Conception and Aim of Higher Criticism 


HIGHER criticism deals with each single book of 
the N. T. separately and in detail, seeking to ascer- 
tain its authorship, credibility, integrity, etc. It is 
the modern name for “ Special Introduction,” a 
term coined by the German theologian Eichhorn 
(1752-1827), yet used almost exclusively by 
American and British critics. The comparative 
“higher” is not used in the sense of superiority, 
but in contrast to ‘‘ lower,” 7. e., textual criticism. 

The sole object of H. C. is to ascertain the real 
facts as to the history of each N. T. book:—its 
authorship, credibility, integrity, occasion, purpose, 
first readers, time and place of composition, literary 
form, sources, analysis, etc. It tests the value of 
traditional opinions and may result in the over- 
throw or the confirmation or modification of them. 


Its aim is constructive. ‘To reach this aim, H. C. 
76 


Higher Criticism 77 


often results in destruction of false views. But 
if it destroys unfounded traditions, it is destructive 
in a good sense. For thus it prepares the ground 
for construction and the gain from it is ultimately 
much greater than the apparent loss. 

Details of the Critical Process. H. C. seeks 
to establish: 

(1) The authorship of abook. As to the name 
of the author, the N. T. contains three classes of 
writings:—(a) books which contain the name of 
the author in the body of the writing (Paul’s, 
Peter’s, James’ letters)—-(b) books to which 
tradition has attached a definite name as author 
(Gospels, Acts)—(c) a book whose author has al- 
ways been in doubt (Hebrews). 

The authorship of a book may be ascertained by 
two kinds of evidences:—(a) by external evidence: 
historical testimony, reliable tradition; (b) by 
internal evidence, consisting in allusions to definite 
facts, general conditions and style, the latter being 
less conclusive, since the same author may vary his 
style at different periods of life or according to 
difference of subject (Dante, Shakespeare, Milton, 
Carlyle, Goethe). 


Note—The most important of the early witnesses to N. T. 
writings which are constantly mentioned in critical discus- 
sions are the following: 


Clement of Rome, Ep. to the Corinthians...... A.D. 95 
PSHE OTe BATTADAS! o. cate ae vest oie sated s Semele 96-120 
Didache, the Teaching of the 12 Apostles.......... 90-100 
PPG NeEDHeEUcOLreeVerinias,.. sates gtoan os wage agi sate wie 130-160 
Seven epistles of Ignatius of Antioch.............. 109 


CAnOneOneMAtriOnuon, PONS, Pea sce de coder teenies 144 


78 The Writings of the New Testament 


Polycarp of Smyrna, Ep. to Philippians BSG Wraps oy sesh A" 155 
Papias, “ Oracles of the Lord,” in fragments....... 150 
Justin Martyr, Tvand U1) Apology (ssc .cthe sees vases 155 
Diatesseron of Tatian, the Assyrian......s..6s0b% 0s 160-170 
Irenzeus of Gaul, Against THIELeSis icine sce eaves 180 
Muratorian Canon, or Fragment ASE UOT s Ss eels ether 170 
Clement of Alexandria, ‘S PaedacOeus:: vic gs aie sinecere 190 
Origen of Alexandria, the greatest Greek Exegete...220 
VPertullian sor North Astricay allawyen. yo oo eae 225 
Peshitio:, Syriac version (oly Noe be ei vie sleep one 160 
[ala rold atin verston oti Leas Olgas, tances g 150 
Busebius,: of Ceesaréa; Eccles.) History. 225 vescc cee: 325 


(See Souter, “Text and Canon of the N. T.,” 160.) 


(2) The credibility of a book,—whether a book 
is trustworthy in regard to its contents. A book 
may be genuine as to authorship and yet unworthy 
of belief, or serious doubt may rest on its author- 
ship, while its contents may impress the reader as 
entitled to confidence. 

(3) The integrity, completeness and unity of 
each book—whether we have the book in exactly 
the same form which the author gave it, or whether 
changes have been made by later hands (Mark 
16: 9-20; John 7: 53-8: 11; Rom. 15 and 16). 

(4) Sources—whether original or derived, Jew- 
ish or pagan. 

(5) Readers, time, place and purpose of writing. 

(6) Literary character,— whether prose or 
poetry, (lyrics, drama, allegory, parable). 

(7) Analysis of contents. 

(8) Value (historical, religious and practical). 


Equipment and Qualifications of the 
Higher Critic 
(1) Concentration of mind, because this kind of 


Higher Criticism 79 


work belongs to the category of specialization, 
which is a deliberate concentration of a man’s best 
powers on a single object, aiming to know every- 
thing about something. 

(2) Familiarity with the method of induction 
which is the method of all modern sciences, pro- 
ceeding by the three steps of observation, collection 
and classification of facts. When enough facts are 
known to warrant it, a hypothesis (‘a research 
guess”) may be formed, which, when demon- 
strated, is called a scientific theory. 

(8) Philological, psychological, philosophical 
and historical training. 

(4) Freedom from prejudice and from dogmatic 
prepossessions (“ Voraussetzungslosigkeit”’), either 
of a negative and anti-dogmatic or of a positive 
and dogmatic character. 

(5) The historic sense, t. ¢., the capacity of 
understanding a past age from its extant litera- 
ture. 


Historical Sketch of Higher Criticism 

The method did not originate with Bible 
scholars, but was first applied to the study of an- 
cient MSS. of profane literature. The Church 
Fathers, schoolmen and Reformers, firmly believ- 
ing in the Divine inspiration of the Bible, cared 
little about its human authorship or literary form; 
though some of them discussed the questions 
summed up under the term of Biblical criticism 
with great freedom. The Deists of England and 


80 The Writings of the New Testament 


the Rationalists of Germany developed this hap- 
hazard Biblical criticism into a science, and their 
endeavor reached its culmination in the Tuebingen 
school of N. ‘I. Criticism, founded by Ferd. Chr. 
Baur (1792-1860). He reconstructed the history 
of the Apostolic Age according to Hegel’s theory 
of historical development, of thesis, antithesis, and 
synthesis. 


Note 1—Baur maintained that the Apostolic Church 
passed through a long period of doctrinal dissension in 
which Paul and Peter antagonized one another; that Paulin- 
ism was liberal and Petrinism was narrow; that only five 
books of the T. T. were genuine—I and II Cor., Rom. and 
Gal. on Paul’s side, and Revelation by the Petrine party; 
that these writings were campaign literature; that the long 
struggle was brought to an end at last by the expediency of 
various compromises, and that all the other books, especially 
Acts, were written in the second century as “tendency” 
literature with the object of insinuating that perfect unity 
prevailed in the Apostolic age. For over two generations 
this controversy kept the theological world in a turmoil, but 
to-day no New ‘Testament scholar of note can be found 
sharing Baur’s peculiar reconstruction ideas, brilliant as they 
seemed. Many permanent results, however, came from the 
tremendous research work of the Tuebingen School and its 
opponents, two of which are: saner ideas as to the inspira- 
tion of the Bible and a general acceptance of the view that 
the New Testament contains different types of teaching. The 
leading N. T. critics of to-day are: Harnack, Moffat, Peake 
(lib.), Pfleiderer (radic.) and Theod. Zahn (consery.). 

Note 2—Literature on the Tuebingen School. 

Schaff-Herzog, Encyc., and Hauck-Herzog, Realencycl. 
under “ Baur,” and “ Tuebingen School.’ 

Vollmer, Philip, “The Inspirational Value of Church 
History.” 

Peake, “Crit. Introduction to the N. T.,” p 2. 

Case, “ Evolution of Early Christianity,” Dp. 90. 

Zenos, “Elements of Higher Criticism,’ pp. 109, 234. 


Higher Criticism 81 


Beneficial Results of Higher Criticism 


(1) An immense amount of new knowledge of 
antiquity has been made accessible, as the ever 
increasing number of Bible Dictionaries shows. 
This has put Christianity upon a historical basis 
far more defensible than ever before. 

(2) The overthrow of the extravagance of the 
Tuebingen School of N. T. criticism and the re- 
affirmation of the principal positions of tradition as 
to the authorship and the dates of most of the N. 
T. books. (See Part III.) 

(3) Demonstration of the progressive develop- 
ment of Divine revelation and of man’s apprehen- 
sion of truth. In the O. T., the moral difficulties, 
the vindictive Psalms, the acts of savagery com- 
mitted by the alleged order of God; and in the 
N. T., the divergent presentation of truth, are no 
longer stumbling blocks to the educated Bible 
student of modern times. 

(4) The vicious “ proof-text”’ method has been 
discredited and a firmer foundation for sound 
exegesis established. The fact is now much clearer 
that the Bible is not like a mass of building blocks 
out of which one might construct a structure of any 
shape. All these “blocks”? were formerly sup- 
posed to be of uniform size and shape; that is, 
Biblical passages were deemed of equal importance, 
whether taken from Job, the Proverbs and Esther 
or from the Gospels and Romans. H. C. enables 
us to see that the Bible should not be treated as a 
mass of isolated texts, but as a collection of books; 


82 The Writings of the New Testament 


that each book has its peculiar setting, its special 
purpose and its suitable form for that setting and 
purpose. 

(5) By limiting the Bible to its peculiar sphere, 
regarding it as a record of Divine revelation of 
religious truths rather than as a text-book on every- 
thing under the sun. ‘Thus, H. C. has made it 
possible for men under the influence of the modern 
scientific spirit to accept the Bible as the source of 
religion. 

Some of these good results of H. C. are so as- 
sured as to be now universally accepted; others 
are still in dispute. ‘The light thrown on the O. T. 
is strongest because there the field is larger and the 
darkness had been denser. 

All these gains have resulted in a higher appre- 
ciation of the Bible. Therefore, as Marcus Dods 
said, “If God had not raised up critics to do this 
work for us, we should undoubtedly be under the 
necessity of appointing men for the task.” 

For these reasons, the H. C. method has been 
accepted by all types of Bible students. Dr. 
Greene (a strong conservative) says: “H. C. is 
a critical inquiry into the authorship, time, cir- 
cumstances and design of the sacred writings.” 
According to Zenos (progressive), H. C. is “an 
inquiry into the origin, literary form and value of 
the Biblical writings.” According to Dr. Briggs 
(a strong liberal), it is “an inquiry into the in- 
tegrity, authenticity, style and credibility of our 
sacred books.” 


Higher Criticism 83 


Reasons for Opposition 


What then causes the wide-spread opposition to 
H. C., if it is such a good and necessary method of 
Bible study? 

(1) Ignorance of the whole subject. Some 
Bible students are possessed by such a deep-seated 
prejudice that they even refuse to give the science 
enough of a hearing to become thoroughly ac- 
quainted with its methods and results. 

(2) Confusion of the method and its real aim 
with some “ postulates” and “results” of radical 
critics. While the method is right, the results de- 
pend to a large extent upon the man using it:—his 
personal faith, moral training, surroundings, teach- 
ers, temperament, etc. Hence the difference in 
results with men of equal talent, and using the 
same method. (Zahn and Harnack; Green and 
Briggs. ) 

(3) Its name in English awakens prejudice, as 
in the popular mind “ criticism ”’ means fault-find- 
ing, and “ higher’ conveys the idea of superiority 
to the Bible itself. 

(4) The deepest cause of opposition to H. C. 
is found in the unwillingness of average human 
nature to part with customary views, in all things, 
but especially in religion. 


Note—Advice to Bible Teachers: 

(1) Study the subject of sane criticism and don’t call 
people names if you cannot agree with them. To call some 
“ destructive critics,” or “ rationalists,’ or ‘“‘ naturalists,” or 
“ anti-supernaturalists,’ and others, “blind traditionalists,” 
or “reactionaries,” etc., and to charge them with hostility to 


84 The Writings of the New Testament 


the Bible or Christianity for no other reason than that their 
conclusions are distasteful to you, is to deny to them the 
rights that ought to be accorded to all seekers after truth. 

(2) Keep controversial subjects out of the pulpit, because 
the people are not trained to follow. It also leads to nega- 
tive preaching, while the people expect nourishing spiritual 
food, Give them all the good results of reverent criticism 
without talking much about the method and the views which 
you consider not tenablé any more. 


CHAPTER XI 
THE NEW TESTAMENT CANON 


Literature: 
Schaff-Herzog, Encyc. II, pp. 393-307 (by Th. Zahn). 
“ Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics,’ Vol. II, pp. 576- 


579 
Gregory, “Canon and Text of the N. T.,” pp. 1-205. 
Schaff, Pe eeniF to the Greek New Testament,” pp. 
225-287 ; 497-525 
Vollmer, Philip, ‘ ‘The Reformation a Liberating Force,” 
PP. 34-38. 
Cobern, “ New Archeological Discoveries,” p. 333. 
Ferris, “ Foundation of the New Testament.” 
Ewald, “Der Kanon des N. 7.” (in “ Zeitfragen’’). 
Bestmann, “ Zur Geschichte des N. T. Kanons.” 


Conception of the Canon 


THE name of authority given to the 27 N. T. 
books is “ ‘The N. T. Canon,” because they are con- 
sidered the rule or standard for the belief and 
moral conduct of those who accept them. ‘This is 
the “ formal principle ” of the Reformation. 


Note r—The term is derived from Galatians 6:16 and 
Philippians 3:16, where it means, however, a rule of faith 
and practice, and not a collection of sacred writings. 

Note 2—In Greek, the word “‘kanon” means, (1) a meas- 
uring rod or lines; (2) anything that serves to regulate 
other things, a principle or a leading thought. (Latin: reg- 
ula, norma).—In the Catholic Church the word canon de- 
notes the rule of faith and practice; a collection of inspired 
writings; the disciplinary decrees of councils; the catalogue 
of martyrs and saints (to canonize—to enroll). 


85 


86 The Writings of the New Testament 


The necessity for a N. T. canon, besides the 
QO. T. canon, soon became apparent for the follow- 
ing reasons: (1) every organization must have 
some rules of guidance; (2) to determine which of 
the various writings should be used in public wor- 
ship, and (3) to which books appeal should be 
made in disputed questions, since heretics, like 
Marcion, had set up their own canons. 


Note—Many ancient Christian writings, not now in the 
N. T., were held in such high esteem in various Churches 
that they were publicly read and appealed to and are even 
included in some of the oldest Greek N. T. manuscripts, such 
as, the Didache, the letters of Barnabas, of Polycarp to the 
Philippians, of Clement of Rome to the Corinthians, of 
Ignatius, the Shepherd of Hermas, etc. 


The canonicity of a N. T. book was determined 
under the guidance of two principles:—(1) ex- 
ternally, by Apostolic authorship and acceptance in 
the oldest and principal churches; (2) internally, 
by the power by which the several books authenti- 
cated themselves as inspired. The Roman Church 
emphasizes the first, the Protestants, the second, 
but each Church accepts both principles. 

The N. T. Canon was not determined by any one 
man (the pope), or by a definite body of men 
(Councils), or at a certain date, but it rather grew 
under the influence of the Holy Spirit during three 
centuries. The church was feeling its way toward 
the canon. All that individuals and Councils had 
to do with the final determination was to officially 
recognize the result of a long development. (In 
a similar way the “classicalness ” of other litera- 


The Canon 87 


¢ 


ture’ is determined, not by the “critics,” nor by 
“authority,” but by the readers themselves. ) 

The N. T. Canon is the same in the Greek, 
Roman and Protestant churches. Hence there are 
neither “ Protestant” nor ‘“‘ Catholic” Bibles, 
though there are translations showing sectarian 
bias. 


History of the N. T. Canon 


Four periods may be distinguished in the grad- 
ual formation of the N. T. canon: 

I. The Gradual Collection of the N. T. writ- 
ings, developed during 50-170 a. p.—(1) Small 
roots of a N. T. canon are found in the N. T. 
Meelite) i hessaros 2 cu vand, Col.w4:-16)" Paul 
suggests the circulation of his letters in other 
Churches, thus intimating general authority for 
their contents. Some hold that Ephesians was 
sent out as a circular letter. Very early, accord- 
ing to II Peter 3: 16, a collection of some or all of 
Paul’s letters, and their authority as ‘‘ Scriptures ”’ 
is intimated.—. (2) In the writings of the Apostolic 
Fathers, before 150, such as the Didache, the let- 
ters of Barnabas, Clement of Rome, Polycarp, 
Ignatius and in Papias, quotations from and illu- 
sions to N. T. books are found, but no clear trace 
of a fixed collection.—(3) But in the latter half of 
the second century, we not only find most of the 
N. T. books in public use and quoted by Irenzus, 
Tertullian, Origen, and others, but also several clear 
testimonies to the existence of a widely recognized 


88 The Writings of the New Testament 


collection of most of our N. T. books, such as the 
Muratorian Canon, of 160 (4 Gos., 16 ep., Rev.); | 
the Itala, and the Peshitto, of 150; Tatian’s Dia- | 

tessaron, of 170, using our four Gospels; Marcion’s | 

canon of 150, (a Gos. and 10 ep.). 

Il. The Gradual Separation (170-800). 

This period marks the gradual separation of the 
N. T. books from other religious literature.—In 
the 4th century Eusebius, the church historian (d, 
340), reports a fourfold classification of sacred 
books in use:—(1) Homologoumena, such as were 
universally acknowledged,—_4 Gosp., Acts, 14 
Pauline Epis., I Pet., I John, Rev.—(2), Antt- 
legomena, disputed books: James, Jude, II Pet., I] 
and IIT John; —(3) Spurious books: Acts of Paul 
and Thekla, Rev. of Peter. Shepherd of Hermas, 
Epistle of Barnabas, Didache, Gospel according to 
the Hebrews. (4) Heretical books: Gospel of 
Peter, of Thomas, of Mathias; the Acts of An- 
drew, of John and of other Apostles—These dis- 
tinctions show the caution with which the early 
Church scrutinized the origin and value of the 
N. T. writings. , 

Ill. The Period of Universal Acceptance (300- 
367). 

The N. T. canon in its present form was finally 
recognized by the provincial Councils at Laodicea, 
in 863 (which omits Rev.) ; at Hippo, in 393, and 
at Carthage, in 397; the latter two under the com- 
manding influence of St. Augustine. Since then 
the N. ‘T. canon in its present form has been gen- 


The Canon 89 


erally accepted by all the churches.—None of the 
first seven Ecumenical Councils made any deliver- 
ance on the N. T. canon. 

IV. Later History of the N. T. Canon. 

(1) The Reformers claimed the critical freedom 
of the ante-Nicene Church and revived the old 
doubts on several antilegomena. Luther uttered 
bold and unwise opinions on James, Hebrews and 
Rev.; Zwingli showed little appreciation for Rev., 
“‘ denn es nit ein biblisch Buch ist’; Calvin refused 
to write a Com. on “ Rev.,”’ denied the Pauline au- 
thority of Hebr. and doubted the genuineness of II 
Peter. 

(2) In the 17th century unscriptural views on in- 
spiration became rampant, while in the 18th 
century Deism and Rationalism went to the other 
extreme. Modern Protestant scholarship insists 
on the principle of the Reformation, the right of 
private judgment in matters of religion and of 
freedom of research. But no Protestant has 
proposed any change in the canon. 

Note 1—The Roman Church, at the Council of Trent, in 
1545, reaffirmed the canon in its present form, but insisted 
on three far-reaching equalizations:—(1) The : 
apocryphal books are equal in authority to the canonical; (2) 
The Latin Vulgate is equal in authority to the original 
pace text; (3) Tradition is equal in authority to the 

1p1le. 

Note 2—As to the O. T. Apocrypha—14 or 16 Jewish 
books written between 300-100 B. c., Protestants are unani- 
mous in refusing canonicity to them; but while the Luther- 
ans and Episcopalians permit their inclusion within the 


Bible as “ good and useful to read,” other Protestant bodies 
refuse them this privilege. 


CHAPTER XII 


TRANSLATIONS AND CIRCULATION OF 
THE NEW TESTAMENT 


Literature: 

Consult Bible dictionaries and encyclopzedias on the va- 
rious subjects. 

Preface to the American Standard Bible. 

Schaff-Herzog, “ Encyclopedia,” Vol. II, pp. 137-139. 

aa “ Companion to the Greek N. A hes Chaps. VII and 
VI 

Smyth, “How We Got Our Bible,” PP. 47-139. 

Oettle, “ Revidierte Lutherbibel.” 

Risch, “Die Deutsche Bibel in ihrer geschichtlichen 
Entwicklung.” 


TueE Bible as a whole or in parts has been trans- 
lated into about 700 languages and has always been 
the most widely circulated book in the world. The 
reason for the constantly increasing number of 
Bible translations is to be found in the principle 
of Protestantism that the Bible is the basis of the 
Christian religion and should therefore be given to 
the people in the language which each person best 
understands.—For the same reason the old trans- 
lations are being from time to time revised and 
corrected because Protestantism considers it a mat- 
ter of conscience to have all the people enjoy the 
results of consecrated Bible scholarship. 

Four groups of Bible translations and revisions 
may be distinguished:—(1) Ancient versions (Pe- 

go 


Translations and Circulation 91 


shitto, Itala, the Gothic), which have already been 
discussed ;—(2) Versions in the Reformation 
period, of which the English and the German in- 
terest us most;—(3) Recent revisions, more or 
less official;—(4) Private translations in modern 
speech. , 

The English Bible was first translated by Wyck- 
liff, in 1383, from the Latin Vulgate. In 1525, 
Tyndale translated the N. T. from the Greek, pub- 
lished at Worms, Germany, 1526. This was fol- 
lowed by the Coverdale translation, in 1535; the 
Great Bible, in 1539; the Geneva Bible, in 1557; 
the Bishop’s Bible, in 1568; the King James or 
Authorized version, in 1611 which is still used by 
a majority of English-speaking Protestants.—The 
British-American Revision of the N. T. was pub- 
lished in 1881, and the American Standard Bible, 
in 1900.—Some of the best known translations in 
Modern English are: Moffat, New Translation of 
the New Testament; Weymouth, The Modern 
Speech N. T.; The Twentieth Century N. T. 
(Revell) ; Goodspeed, The N. T., an American 
Translation. 

The German Bible was translated by Luther, the 
N. T. in 1521 and the whole Bible, in 1534.—The 
revised Luther Bible was published in 1883.— 
Translations in modern German:—by H. Wiese 
(Am. Tract Soc.); by Weizaecker (Mohr in 
Tuebingen) ; by Stage (Reclam, Leipzig). 

Roman Catholic translations :—the Douay trans- 
lation (Engl.); by Kistemacher (German). 


92 The Writings of the New Testament 


he Bible in America:—The first Bible printed 
in America was John Eliot’s translation into the 
Native Indian dialect, at Cambridge, Mass., in 
1663; the second was Luther's German Bible, at 
Germantown, Pa., in 1748; the third was the Eng- 
lish Bible at Philadelphia, Pa., in 1782. 


Dissemination of the New Testament 


To make the Bible accessible to all the people, 
Bible societies have been organized. One of the 
oldest is the Canstein B. Soc., at Halle, Germany, 
founded by Baron Canstein, in 1710; the largest is 
the British and Foreign Bible Society, founded in 
1804; the second largest is the American Bible 
Society in New York, founded in 1816. 


CHAPTER XIII 


THE INTERPRETATION OF THE NEW 
TESTAMENT 


Literature: 

Consult the Bible dictionaries and encyclopedias on the 
various subjects. 
4 A “A Short History of the Interpretation of the 

1 

“A Guide to the Study of the Christian Religion,” p. 200. 

Farrar, “ History of Interpretation.” 

Briggs, “General Introduction to the Study of the Holy 
Scriptures.” 

Clarke, “ The Use of the Scriptures in Theology.” 
tears “Zum religionsgeschichtlichen Verstandniss des 

Bacon, B. W., “ He Opened to Us the Scriptures.” 

Robertson, A. T., “The Minister and His Greek New 
Testament.” 

Abbott-Smith, “A Manual Greek Lexicon of the N. T.” 

“The Analytical Greek Lexicon.” 

Perry; Base 

Trench, “N. T. Synonyms.’ 

Vollmer, Philip, “ Sound exegesis the Basis of Effective 
Preaching,” 


I. Definition of Interpretation 


INTERPRETATION, or exegesis is the art of ascer- 
taining and unfolding the true meaning of the in- 
spired writers, according to established hermeneu- 
tical principles, without adding to it, subtracting 
from it or changing it in any way; in other words, 
without forcing upon the authors a meaning in 
harmony with preconceived opinions, 

93 


94 The Writings of the New Testament 


Note 1—The process is to be exegesis, (from the Greek 
8&nyéopuat, to lead out), not eisegesis (to put in) ; eposition 
(from the Latin expono), not imposition; auslegen, not 
‘hineinlegen. ‘The Latin term expressing the same idea is 
” interpretation,” derived from inter, between, and the obso- 
lete “preto,’ speak; hence, one speaking between two, to 
make the words of the one plain to the other. 

Note 2—The name of the science giving the rules of in- 
terpreting the Bible is “ Hermeneutics,” from “ hermeneuo,” 
probably from the Greek god Hermes, the interpreter of the 
will of the gods to men. 


II. Qualifications of the Interpreter 


1. Intellectual and Educational Qualifications.— 
(a) Common sense, sound judgment and imagina- 
tion which will enable the student to realize the 
historical situation and penetrate into the writer’s 
state of mind—(b) Knowledge of the author’s 
language. Translations are no adequate substitutes 
to one who aims at scientific (1. e., thoro) interpre- 
tation ;—(c) Knowledge of Bible lands and peo- 
ples. 

2. Moral and Spiritual Qualifications—(a) 
Regard for the truth to which all preconceived 
notions must be sacrificed. A great deal of pre- 
tended exegesis does not deserve that name.—(b) 
Sympathy with the spirit and subject of the writer. 
No amount of learning can compensate for the 
want of spiritual affinity. (Read I Cor. 2: 14-15; 
and Matt. 5: 8.) 


III. Three Degrees of Interpretation 


(1) Translations—a simple transfer from the 
original into another language. ‘Two kinds: (a) 


The Interpretation 95 


for scholarly use, with exclusive regard for accu- 
racy; (b) for popular use, giving an idiomatic 
reproduction, so as to appeal to the reader with 
much of the power of the original. 

(2) Paraphrases—an explanatory and extended 
translation. Clearer terms are substituted for 
obscure ones and made part of the text. Words 
and phrases are inserted, connecting links supplied. 

(3) Commentarties—explanations of the text, 
distinct from the text itself—either brief or ex- 
haustive. There are three kinds of commentaries: 
philological, theological, practical Some com- 
mentaries combine all the above features in one 
and the same treatise. 


IV. Defective Methods of Interpretation 


(1) The allegorical method (from the Greek, 
ALLOS, Other, and AGOREO, to speak in the assem- 
bly) ; hence, to make the author say something else 
than his words plainly indicate, 7. e., to find a 
deeper sense under the literal meaning. 


Note 1—The allegorical method originated with Stoic and 
Platonic philosophers who applied it to Greek mythology to 
get rid of its absurdities and immoralities. The Hellenistic 
Jews borrowed it in the period of the Apocrypha, and Philo 
(d. A. D. 30), applied it in his endeavor to harmonize the 
O. T. with Greek philosophy by distinguishing between the 
literal or historical sense and the spiritual or mystical mean- 
ing. Even Paul used it occasionally (Gal. 4:24). The 
Church Fathers (Clement and Origen) applied it to the 
N. T. To the literal and mystical, Origen added a “moral” 
sense, corresponding to the three elements in man: body, 
soul, and spirit. Later a logical sense was added and 
Bonaventura increased it to seven (symbolical, synecdoch- 
ical, hyperbolic sense, etc.). This method ruled exegesis for 


96 The Writings of the New Testament 


I500 years and is not quite dead yet. The result of this 
method was that men read into the text whatever they 
desired to find there,—to turn it like a nose of wax. Luther 
called it a “monkey-game” (Affenspiel). For examples, 
Schaff, “ Propaed.,”’ p. 208; Sheldon, “ N. T. Theol.,” p. 22. 

(2) The dogmatical method approaches the 
Bible, consciously or unintentionally, with ready- 
made dogmas or definite preconceptions, consider- 
ing these as standards to which the interpretation 
of the Bible is forced to conform. In this way, 
dogma dominates exegesis, while the reverse is 
evidently the only correct way for leading the 
Church into the truth—This dogmatism may be 
traditional-orthodox, based on creeds; or rational- 
istic, based on scientific or philosophical beliefs. 
Both methods often do violence to the evident 
meaning of the text by forcing it into a ‘ Procus- 
tean bed.” (For examples of Rationalistic 
exegesis, see Christlieb, ‘Modern Doubt,” p. 
346.) 

(3) The one-sided practical and devotional 
method which disregards the historical sense of a 
passage, confusing application with interpretation. 


V. The Grammatical-Historical Method 


Because this is the method based on induction 
which all sciences in modern times employ, it is 
also known as the scientific method of exegesis to 
distinguish it from the defective methods. 

1. Its sole aim is to get at the exact and evi- 
dent meaning of the text. Over against the alle- 
gorical method, it insists on one sense only, even in 


The Interpretation 97 


Messianic prophecies. Over against the dogmatical 
method, it insists that nothing outside the text (be 
it creed or philosophy) must be allowed to fetter 
the text. Nothing must be carried into the text. 
The text must be allowed to speak for itself. Over 
against the practical and homiletical method, the 
sharp distinction between interpretation and ap- 
plication must be kept in sight. 

2. This method seeks an answer to three ques- 
tions: What does the Bible or any part of it (1) 
say, (2) mean, (3) teach. 

(1) The first step in this exegetical process— 
what does the text say—includes the derivation 
and exact meaning of words, phrases, idioms and 
synonyms; their relation in the sentence, what part 
of speech they form; the logical thought of a 
sentence or passage in its continuity. Missing 
links must often be supplied in order to understand 
the continuous current of thought. In the English 
Bible such necessary additions are printed in italics 
(gags Kom. 5:18). 

(2) The second step in exegesis—what does a 
text mean—includes: (a) a study of the context 
(text surrounding the one under consideration). 
This sometimes extends to the entire chapter, and 
the whole book (I Cor. 7: 1, comp. v. 26).—(06) 
an inquiry into the literary character: Is it prose, 
poetry, drama, prophecy, or parable? (Gen. 1-3; 
Matt. 4, 1-11).—(c) Investigation of the his- 
torical surroundings—the political, social, moral 
and religious conditions of the times; its chron- 


98 'The Writings of the New Testament 


ological, ethnological and geographical relations; 
also the writer’s psychology, external conditions 
and view-points. A writing cannot be understood 
if forced out of its literary connection and con- 
sidered apart from the age whence it came, for 
each book is a product of history. The method of 
this investigation is called Higher Criticism. (See 
Chap. 10.)—-The final product of the exegetical 
process is Biblical Theology. 

(3) The third question asks:—What does the 
text teach?—-What principles of faith or morality 
may be deduced from the Bible as a whole or any 
of its parts as useful to present conditions? This 
is dogmatical, practical or homiletical exegesis. 
(Demonstrate this method on several texts. ) 


Note 1—These principles of sound interpretation hold good 
whatever part of the Bible we may study. The following 
practice will yield great gains in every way.—(1) Work hard 
and continuously to gain a general familiarity with the N. T. 
as a whole, its stories and words. Learn to locate its great 
chapters and passages. ‘To this end, (2) Study the N. T. 
by books, including introduction, careful analysis, the key- 
words and chief conceptions.—(3) Study N. T. by chapters, 
single or in groups, bringing out principal subject, leading 
lesson, best verse, prominent person. (For ex., Matt. 5-7; 
John 17; I Cor. 14.)—(4) Study N. T. by topics:— 
prayer, love, meekness, limited to a book, or extended 
to the whole N. T. or the entire Bible—(5) Pursue 
word-studies:—God, Christ, grace, sanctification. (“ Word 
Studies in the N. T.” by M. R. Vincent.)—(6) Study N. T. 
by periods:—Life of Chr., Ap. Church—(7) Study the 
parables and miracles of our Lord in groups.—(8) Study 
the Bible by biographies. 

Note 2—The Value of Bible Reading and Study. 

(1) The chief end and aim of Bible reading is the gen- 
eral enrichment of human life. ‘The Bible belongs to the 
class of books called “literature of power.’ Its abounding 
wealth of ethical and religious teaching in forms of 


The Interpretation 99 


biography, exhortation, etc., has inspired untold millions to 
lead a higher life and to develop a good character by lessons 
learned from the good and the bad characters portrayed in it. 

(2) Valuable by-products of Bible reading are: perfec- 
tion of literary style; historical, literary, philosophical, re- 
ligious and archeological information. The Bible presents 
in popular and attractive form the history of a developing 
Divine revelation through human experience. 

(3) The Bible is the richest storehouse of material for 
preaching and teaching. As in the past, so in the future men 
will come to this powerhouse for strength and suggestions 
to lift up their fellowmen, because the problems with which 
Jesus and Paul dealt are perennial, and the principles for 
solution laid down in the N. T. will assume larger impor- 
tance as men progress in intelligence and goodness. 

(4) To gain all these blessings, preachers and teachers 
should derive the Christian truth chiefly from the New 
Testament, remembering that of the Old Testament only so 
much is binding on the Christian as agrees with the higher 
revelation in the N. T. (Matt. 5: 27-48; Heb. 1:1; 8:13; 
Rom. 10:4). And this material should be taken directly 
from the N. T. In many creeds, systems and books, the 
pure gold of Christ’s Gospel is buried from sight by in- 
numerable layers of traditional dust and theological rubbish. 


General Review of Part II 


1. Name and explain the four chief divisions of the 
science of theology. 

2. Give accurate definitions of (a) N. T. Introduction; 
(b) General Introduction; (c) Special Introduction. 

3. Collective names of the 27 books in Greek, Latin, and 
English; origin and literal meaning of Greek name. 

4. Fivefold classification of the 27 N. T. books. 

5. State name and characteristics of the original language 
of the N. T. 

6. Matefials of writing, form of ancient codices, two 
kinds of letters, origin of chapter divisions, punctuation, 
etc. 

7. Name and describe the three sources for restoring the 
original text; name and describe the two most important 
uncials; what is a palimpsest? 

8. State aim, need and rules of textual criticism. De- 
scribe origin, name and value of the “ Textus Receptus.” 

g. Aim and beneficial results of Higher Criticism. 


100 The Writings of the New Testament 


10. As to the N. T. canon, explain name, necessity, rules, 
for determining reception of books, and sketch history. 

II. Sketch history of the English translation from 
Wickliff to the American Standard Bible. 

12, Explain literal meaning of the terms: hermeneutics, 
exegesis, interpretation. 

13. Enumerate (a) intellectual and (6) moral qualifica- 
tions of a successful interpreter. Explain the three degrees 
of interpretation. 

14. Describe in detail the three steps of the scientific 
method of interpretation. 


PART III 


Special Introduction to 
The New Testament 


THE FIVE HISTORICAL BOOKS 
The Four Gospels and the Book of Acts 


CHAPTER XIV 


GENERAL ASPECTS OF THE FOUR 
GOSPELS 


Literature: 

Reliable information on all N. T. books may be found in 
great variety in the works on N. T. Introduction, on the 
Life of Christ, on the Apostolic Age, on N. T. Theology, in 
commentaries, in encyclopedias, and especially in the various 
dictionaries of the Bible. We call special attention to the 
following books : 

Adeney, ' ‘New Testament Introduction.” 

Moffat, “An Introduction to the Literature of the N. T.” 

Peake, “ Critical Introduction to the N. T.” 

Salmon, “Tntroduction to the N. T.” 

Farrar, “ The Messages of the Book.” 

Dod, “ Introduction to the N. T.” 

Ramsay, “The Bearing of Recent Discoveries on the 
Trustworthiness of the N. T.” 

Barth, “ Einleitung in das N. T.” 

Feine, ‘ ‘Einleitung in das N. ‘T.” 

Hastings’ “Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels,” Vol. I, 
Pp. 659-063 and 670. 

Hastings’ ‘ ‘ Dictionary of the Bible,” Vol. II, pp. 233-249. 

Snowden, * ‘The Making and Meaning of the New Testa- 
ment.” 

Scott, E. T., “The New Testament To-day.” 


for 


102 The Writings of the New Testament 


Commentaries on the Entire N. T. 


One volume commentaries on the entire Bible by Dumme- 
low and by Peake. 

Clarke, ‘People’s Commentary” (6 vol.). 

“ Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges: ” 19 volumes 
based on the Greek Text, and 19 volumes based on the 
English text. 

Moorehead, “ Outline Studies of the N. T.” (6 vol.). 

“ Expositor’s Bible” (21 vol.). 

“The Expositor’s Greek Testament” (5 vol.). 

“International Critical Commentary.” 

Lange, “Commentary” (German and English). 
hoe “Commentary on the N. T.” (German and Eng- 
ish). 

Bousset, “ Die Schriften des Neuen Testaments.” 

Holtzmann, “ Kommentar zum N, 7.” 


Harmonies of the Gospels. 


Stevens and Burton, “A Harmony of the Gospels.” 

Robertson, A. T., “A Harmony of the Gospels.” 

Heinle, “ Synopse der drei ersten Evangelien und des 
Johannes.” 

Johnson, ‘“ Quotations of the N. T. from the Old.” 

Burton, “ Records and Epistles of the Apost. Age.” 

The American Standard Bible. 


(1) THE method of spreading the Gospel in the 
Apostolic Age was chiefly by word of mouth, For 
almost a generation (30-50 a. D.) this method was 
employed exclusively, and when later the 27 books 
of the New Testament were written one by one, it 
did not imply an intentional change of method 
since these writings were called forth by special 
occasions. 

Note r—Nothing in writing from Jesus has come down to 
us. The letter he is said to have written to King Abgarus 
of Edessa is a forgery of the third century (John 12: 20-22). 

Note 2—How early the Logia, the original Mark 
(“Source Q” or Ur-Markus), or the early attempts at 


Gospel writing referred to in Luke 1: 1-4 appeared, no one 
knows. 


General Aspects of the Four Gospels 103 


Note 3—The “Scriptures” to which Christ and the 
Apostles constantly appealed, was the Old Testament in a 
Christian interpretation (Matt. 21:42; 22:29; 26:54, 56; 
Bukewed 272 ACtsSI1732, 1sel Corads: 33..1 Vim: 3: 15.16), 

(2) In all collections of the 27 N. T. books, the 
four Gospels stand at the head, although all of 
them were written later than most of the epistles. 
The reasons for this order are as follows: (1) 
Christianity is a historical religion basing its doc- 
trines not on speculations but on the facts in the 
life of Christ; (2) because our four Gospels rest 
on oral and written traditions (Luke 1: 1-4) which 
are older than the epistles. 

Note—The present order of the four Gospels in our 
Bibles does not mean to imply certainty of chronological 
succession. Some ancient manuscripts group together the 
Gospels by the two Apostles (Matthew and John), followed 
by the books of the two disciples of Apostles (Mark and 
Luke).—Some modern translations place Mark first, fol- 
lowed by Matthew, Luke and John. 

(3) The literal meaning in the N. T. of the 
Greek term sdayyéitov (euangelion) and of the 
English word “ Gospel” is “ good news,” from «cv 
—“good” and ayyédtov —“ spel,’ which is an 
obsolete English word, meaning ‘“ news.” 

Note—In classical Greek and in some passages of the 
Greek Old Testament, (I,XX) the word signifies the reward 
or thankoffering for good news (II Sam. 4:10). Later it 
was limited to the “good news” itself (Isa. 61:1; 52:7; 
quoted in Rom. to: Wo eeaini the oN T. the word “ Gospel” 
is exclusively used in the sense of a message (Luke 2: 10; 
Matt. 4:23; Mark 1:15).—Only since Justin Martyr (about 


150 A. D.), it is also applied to the record containing the 
message.—To-day we use it in both senses. 


(4) The meaning of the term “ Gospel” being 


104 The Writings of the New Testament : 


neutral, various explanatory phrases are frequently 
added to it in the N. T., such as “the Gospel of 
the kingdom” (Luke 8:1), “the G. of Christ” 
(Rom. 15: 19), “the G. of our Salvation ” (Eph. 
1: 13), all three stressing its contents; “the G. of 
God” (Rom. 1:1), denoting its author; “my 
Gospel” (Rom. 2:16), expressing a special type; 
“the Gospel according to” emphasizing the unity 
of the message. As there could be only one Gos- 
pel, the four narratives were regarded as so many 
accounts or versions of the one message. 

Note—The titles were not given to the four Gospels by 
their authors, but were furnished quite late by some un- 
known source. 

(5) As to the selections from the facts in the 
public ministry of Christ, we find that all four evan- 
gelists place the emphasis on the closing events, 
more than one-half of all the material describing 
events of the last year, and of this more than one- 
third is devoted to the few weeks of Christ’s suf- 
ferings, death and resurrection. (Examine each 
Gospel and also a Harmony of all four Gospels. ) 

(6) In our four Gospels we find a distinct 
variety in their unity. ‘They fall into two groups, 
the first comprising Matt., Mark, and Luke, char- 
acterized as “ synoptics,” because they are very 
similar as to general outline, contents, language 
and teaching; called by the ancients also the 
“bodily Gospels,” because they lay stress on the 
external facts of the earthly life of Christ. ‘The 
second group consists of John’s Gospel, known as 


General Aspects of the Four Gospels 105 


the “spiritual Gospel,” because it emphasizes the 
heavenly origin of Christ and his unique and inti- 
mate relation to the Father, being written with the 
self-avowed purpose to prove that Jesus is the Son 
of God and to persuade men to believe in Him 
(20: 81).—Also of the Synoptists each one has an 
individuality of its own, as to selections, grouping 
and purpose. Matthew stresses the prophetic work 
of Christ giving long discourses; Mark pictures 
Christ as a great hero performing many miracles; 
Luke stresses the humane and universalistic fea- 
tures of Jesus. 


Note—Because of these differences, the fancy of the 
ancients saw in the fourfold Gospel a realization of the 
four-visaged cherubin in Ezek. 1: 3-21, assigning to Matt. 
the figure of a man (humanity); to Mark that of a lion 
(strength) ; to Luke that of an ox (sacrifice) ; and to John 
that of an eagle, piercing into the heavenly mystery of 
Christ’s person. 


(7) Written Gospels before our four Gospels 
are mentioned in Luke 1: 1-4, but the time and 
character of their composition cannot be deter- 
mined. They must, however, have been unsatis- 
factory, as they were superseded by our four Gos- 
pels on the principle that the fittest survive. 

(8) Gospels were written also after our four 
Gospels, most of them in the second century, known 
as Apocryphal (non-canonical). These contain 
chiefly legends connected with the birth and early 
days of Jesus, his death and resurrection, written 
in order to gratify idle curiosity or to spread false 
teachings. Most of them are crude and childish 


106 The Writings of the New Testament 


tales. Harnack has constructed a list of sixteen 
such gospels, the most important of which are: the 
Gospel of the Hebrews, of the Twelve Apostles, of 
Peter, of Thomas, of Matthias, of Philip, of Eve, 
of the Infancy, the Acts of Pilate, the Protevan- 
gelium of James, and of Marcion. (Hast., D. of 
Chr. and the Gospels, I, 671.) 

(9) The genuineness of the Synoptic Gospels 
is at present almost universally conceded, and as 
the Johannine problem will be discussed in its 
proper place, no time need be spent here discussing 
the exploded hypotheses of Gospel criticism. 


Note—The testimony of the Muratorian Canon (170), 
Tatian’s Diatessaron, (170), Irenzus quotations, etc., prove 
that about the middle of the second century all of our four 
Gospels were accepted in Rome, Gaul, Asia Minor, Syria, 
etc.—Still older writings, such as the Didache, Papias, the 
epistle of Barnabas, etc., quote from the “ Gospel,” but it is 
difficult to determine whether these writings refer to our 
four Gospels, or to oral tradition. 


(10) The great value of our four Gospels has 
been emphasized in all ages, not only by theologians 
but also by great men and women, such as Goethe, 
Renan, and others. 

Two methods of studying our four Gospels:— 
(1) From the literary standpoint, as separate 
books, each one from its own point of view, allow- 
ing each one to tell its own story in its own way, 
bringing out the distinct individuality of each 
Gospel.—(2) As a synopsis, with the aim of dis- 
cerning the harmony of the four accounts and for 


the purpose of constructing a harmonized life of 
Christ. 


CHAPTER XV 


THE THREE SYNOPTIC GOSPELS AND THE 
SYNOPTIC PROBLEM 


Literature: 
Consult the bibliography in Chapters 1 and 14. 


The Gospel According to Matthew 


The Author:—Matthew (“gift of God,” also 
known as Levi, Mark 2:14, 15 and Matt. 9:9, 
10), the son of Alphzus, a tax collector at Caper- 
naum, called by Jesus from his work. He gave a 
farewell feast in honor of Jesus to which he in- 
vited his fellow publicans. Nothing else is re- 
corded of him in the Gospels. Tradition says that 
he worked for fifteen years in Judea and after- 
wards in Parthia and Ethiopia. 

Origin and Language of the Book:—Matthew 
seems to have written two books: (@) The Logia, 
a collection of “sayings”’ of our Lord, containing 
no historical narratives, written in Aramaic. This 
islostto us. (b) Our Gospel, which is not a mere 
translation of the Logia, but a work originally 
composed in Greek by Matthew or an assistant, 
into which all, or the larger part of the Logia was 
interwoven. 

The Original Readers:—Very probably Greek- 

107 


108 The Writings of the New Testament 


speaking Jews, for he finds it necessary to interpret 
Hebrew words like ‘ Immanuel” (1: 23), “ Gol- 
gotha” (27: 33), and Christ’s Prayer (27: 46). 

Date and Place :—-It was probably written before 
A. D. 70, for there are indications in it that Jeru- 
salem had not yet been destroyed (4:5; 5: 35), 
and an allusion to the approach of the crisis: “ Let 
him that readeth understand” (Matt. 24:15). 
It was probably written in Palestine, city unknown. 

Characteristics:—(a) More Hebraistic than the 
others, using Hebrew idioms (“Kingdom of 
Heaven” from the Jewish reluctance to use the 
name of God) ; Old T. quotations not found in the 
parallel Gospels are made from the Hebrew and 
not from the LXX; (b) Standpoint and atmos- 
phere is Jewish: he commences the genealogy with 
Abraham, quotes about sixty O. T. prophecies 
which he sees fulfilled in Christ. (c) But he is 
no opponent of the Gentiles, for he alone records 
the visit of the Magi, and the Great Commission. 
(d) A large place is assigned to the words of Jesus, 
which often are arranged in systematic form. 

Contents:—Matthew is divided into twenty- 
eight chapters. The general arrangement is 
topical, and chronological only in its general out- 
lines, especially in the second part. 


- I. Preparation for Christ's Public Ministry, 1: 1-4: 11. 


1. Genealogy, announcement to Joseph, birth of Christ, 
visit of the Wise Men, flight to, and return from 
Egypt (Chapters 1 and 2). 

2. Ministry of John the Baptist, baptism and temptation 
of Jesus (3:1-4:11). 


Three Synoptic Gospels 109 


II. Christ’s Ministry in Galilee, 4: 12-18: 35. 


I. 


2. 
3 


Removal from Nazareth to Capernaum, recall of dis- 
ciples, widespread fame (4: 12-25). 

Sermon on the Mount (on piece 5, 6 and 7). 

A group of events illustrating the authority claimed 
in the Sermon on the Mount: healing of the leper, 
the centurion’s servant and Peter’s wife’s mother ; 
stilling of the tempest; cure of the Gadarene de- 
moniac and the paralytic; call of Matthew, raising of 
Jairus’ daughter; cure of a woman, of two blind men 
and a demoniac man (8: I-9: 34). 

Christ’s compassion for the people; names and preach- 
ing journey of the Twelve (9: 35-10: 42). 

Events showing the attitude of various groups toward 
the Gospel; message from John, woes against cities, 
criticism of the Pharisees for plucking corn and heal- 
ing on the Sabbath, warning against blasphemy, the 
true kindred of Christ (Chapters 11 and 12). 

A group of parables concerning the growth of the 
kingdom of God (13: 1-52). 

Increased oppositions; second rejection at Nazareth, 
the Baptist’s death, feeding of the 5000, walking on 
the sea of Galilee, eating with unwashed hands and 
break with the Pharisees (13: 53-15: 20). 


III. Retirement to Northern Galilee, 15: 21-18 : 35. 


i. 


2. 


Ss. 


Journey to Tyre:—the Canaanitish woman, feeding 
of the 4000, a sign demanded (15: 20-16: 12), 
Journey to Cesarea Philippi—Peter’s Confession, 
predicting his death, transfiguration, cure of the 
epileptic boy (16: 13-17: 23). 

Return to Capernaum, paying the temple tax, dis- 
course on humility and forgiveness (17: 24-18: 35). 


IV. Ministry in Perea and Judea, Chapters 19 and 20. 


I. 


2. 


Forbidding divorce, blessing children, the rich ruler 
and the peril of wealth (Chapter 19). 

Parable of the laborers in the vineyard, foretelling 
his death, ambition of James and John, cure of the 
blind man at Jericho (Chapter 20). 


V. The Last Week of Christ at Jerusalem, Chapters 21-28. 


Triumphal entry on Palm Sunday, controversies, 
passover, death and resurrection. 


The Gospel According to Mark 


The Author:—John Mark, the son of a Mary 


i 


110 The Writings of the New Testament 


(Acts 12:12) and probably of the master of the 
house where the Last Supper was held (Mark 14: 
13). He probably was the young man in Geth- 
semane mentioned in Mark 14:51, 52. He was 
a cousin of Barnabas (Col. 4: 10), with whom he 
came from Jerusalem to Antioch, the helper on 
Paul’s first missionary journey (Acts 13: 5, 13; 
15: 387), later again with Paul (Col. 4: 10, Phile- 
mon 24), and with Peter (I Pet. 5:18, “My 
son”). InIl Tim. 4: 11, Paul expresses a strong 
desire to see him. 

Sources of the Book:—According to ancient 
tradition Mark received his material from Peter 
whom he accompanied to Rome as “ interpreter,” 
translating Peter’s Aramaic sermons into Greek. 
Later, according to the “elder ” quoted by Papias, 
he “ wrote down accurately everything that he re- 
membered.” Justin Martyr therefore calls Mark’s 
Gospel, “ Memoirs of Peter.” 

Date and Place of Wmntimg:—Before 65, in 
Rome; 7. e., after Peter’s death and before the 
destruction of Jerusalem. The reason for this date 
is the same as in Matthew. | 

Original Readers:—Probably Roman Christians 
of Gentile extraction. This would explain the 
Latinisms, the mention of Rufus (15: 21), iden- 
tical with the Roman Christian of Rom. 16: 18, the 
absence of Christ’s genealogy, the few O. T. quota- 
tions, his preference for Christ’s miracles (18, and 
only 4 parables); his explanations of Hebrew 
words—boanerges, talitha kumi, corban—as well 


Three Synoptic Gospels 111 


as of Jewish customs and modes of thought (7: 2, 
Deo). 

Characteristics:—Style and diction are graphic, 
concrete, animated, colorful, picturesque, empha- 
sizing the powerful deeds of Jesus which would 
appeal to the Romans, laying stress on details as to 
persons, numbers, and places, dwelling on the 
gestures and looks of Jesus. 

Integrity :—As verses 16: 9-20 are absent from 
the two oldest and most important manuscripts 
(Aleph and B); and differ greatly from the rest 
of the book in the use of words, etc., they are very 
generally regarded as a later addition. 

Contents :—Mark’s Gospel is the shortest of the 
four, comprising only 16 chapters. 


I. Preparation for Christ's Public Ministry, 1: 1-13. 
Introduction, message of the Baptist, baptism and 
temptation of Jesus. 

Il. Christ's Galilean Ministry, 1: 14-7: 23. 

1. Early Ministry in Galilee:—Removal to Capernaum, 
recall of the disciples, a Sabbath in Capernaum and 
first preaching journey (1: 14~45). 

2. Successive grounds of offense; cure of the paralytic 
and claim to forgive sin, call of Levi, disregard of 
‘seis ee grain and healing on the Sabbath 

2: 1-3:6). 

3. More advanced Galilean Ministry : widespread fame, 
choosing of the Twelve, warning against the “ eternal 
sin,’ Christ’s true kindred (3: 7-35). 

4. A group of parables about the growth of the kingdom 
of God (4: 1-34). 

5. Various manifestations of Christ’s power :—stilling of 
the tempest, cure of the Gadarene demoniac and a 
woman, raising of Jairus’ daughter (4: 35-5: 34). 

6. Preaching j journey, rejection at Nazareth, sending out 
of the Twelve, death of the Baptist (6: I-29). 

7. Retirement to a desert, feeding of the 5000, walking 


112 The Writings of the New Testament 


on the sea, many healings, eating with unwashed 
hands (6: 30-7: 23). 
Ill. Withdrawal to Northern Galilee, 7:24-9:50. 

1. Journey to Tyre. Syrophcenician woman, cure of a 
deaf and dumb person, feeding of the 4000, a sign 
demanded, a blind man healed at Bethsaida (7: 24- 
8:20). 

2. Journey to Cesarea Philippi:—Confession of Peter, 
transfiguration, the cure of the dumb boy, foretelling 
his death (8: 27-32). 

3. Return to Capernaum. ‘Teaching on humility and 
tolerance (8: 33-9: 50). 

IV. The Perean Ministry, Chapter to. 
Forbidding divorce, blessing children, the rich ruler, 
ambition of James and John, cure of Blind Barti- 
meus at Jericho. 

V. Last Week at Jerusalem, Chapters 11-16. 
Triumphal entry, controversies, passover, death and 
resurrection 


The Gospel According to Luke 
Literature: 
Consult ean under Chapters 1 and 14 


Robertson, A. “Luke the Historian in ie Light of 
Research.” 


Harnack, “ Luke the Physician, the Author of the Third 
Gospel and Acts.” 
Godet, “ Commentary on Luke.” 


The Author :—Luke, the only Gentile among the 
Biblical writers (Col. 4: 14 omits him from the list 
of “ those of the circumcision ”), probably a Greek 
from Antioch, a physician (Col. 4: 14), and, ac- 
cording to an old tradition a painter. The “we” 
sections in Acts show that he was with Paul from 
Troas to Philippi (Acts 16: 16-17). He remains 
at Philippi and after six years accompanies Paul 
to Jerusalem (20: 5 to 21: 18), and on the voyage 
to Rome (Acts 27 and 28). During Paul’s first 
Roman imprisonment, he was one of his co-work- 


Three Synoptic Gospels 118 


ers (Philemon 24), and during Paul’s second 
Roman imprisonment, Luke was his only faithful 
attendant (II Tim. 4:11). 

Sources and Method:—In a preface (1: 1-4), 
he states his object and method. (1) He de- 
sires to confirm the faith of a “ Theophilus,” and 
as none of the existing Gospels suited him he writes 
one himself. (2) His method is very thorough: 
(a) He collects documents, (Db) examines eye-wit- 
nesses, (c) employs critical canons in sifting the 
material, and (d) aims at writing a complete 
biography, in distinction from the fragments be- 
fore him. (3) That Paul influenced the spirit of 
Luke’s Gospel is beyond controversy; but he may 
also have furnished him with material from the 
tradition in possession of Paul (I Cor. 15: 1-9). 

Place and Date:—Probably at Philippi, about 75 
A. D., that is, after the destruction of Jerusalem, 
for, in place of the general language in Matthew 
and Mark, Luke 21: 20 and 24 gives a clear de- 
scription of the siege and its issue; and while in 
Matthew and Mark the final judgment is closely 
associated with the doom of Jerusalem, in Luke it 
is distinguished from the local event and an in- 
terval is placed between the two (22: 24). 

Characteristics:—(a) Better Greek, except in 
the “Hymns” in Chapters 1 and 2, which are 
thoroughly Hebraistic and point to a Hebrew 
document; (b) the longest account of the infancy, 
probably derived from the Virgin and others; (c) 
a long account (Chaps. 9-19) of the Perean period, 


114 The Writings of the New Testament 


not found in the other Gospels; (d) traces of his 
medical training may be found in his stressing 
Christ’s healings, and in using technical terms for 
some of the diseases (4: 88; 5: 12; 6: 19; 22: 44). 
Luke illustrates Paul’s teaching of the universality 
of the Gospel, stressing Christ’s humane feelings 
and far-reaching sympathies (Good Samaritan, 
the parables of “The lost found,” the great sinner, 
toleration (9: 51-56, etc.). 

Contents:—Luke’s Gospel contains twenty-four 
chapters. 


I. Literary Preface, 1: 1-4. 

II. Annunciations, birth and childhood of the Baptist and 
Jesus, interspersed with five hymns (1: 5-2: 52). 

Ill. Preparation for Christ’s Public Ministry, 3: 1-4: 13. 
Message of the Baptist, baptism, genealogy and temp- 
tation of Jesus. 

IV. Galilean Ministry, 4:14-9:50. 

1. Rejection at Nazareth, removal to Capernaum, cure 
of a demoniac, Peter’s wife’s mother and many 
others (4: 14-43). 

2. Preaching journey in Galilee, recall of the disciples, 
cure of a leper (4: 44-5: 16). 

3. Grounds of offense; cure of the paralytic and claim 
to forgive sins, call of Levi, neglect of fasting, 
plucking grain and healing on the Sabbath (5: 17- 
6:11). 

4. Organization of the kingdom by choosing the 
Twelve, sermon in the plain (6: 12-49). 

5. Work at Capernaum and on a preaching journey; 
cure of Centurion servant, raising of the young 
man at Nain, message from the Baptist, anointing 
at Simon’s house, a group of parables, the tempest 
stilled, the Gadarene healed and Jairus’ daughter 
raised (7: 1-8:56). 

6. Sending out of the Twelve, feeding the 5000, 
Peter’s confession, the transfiguration, ambition of 
James and John (9: 1-50). 

V. The Perean Ministry, 9: 51-19: 28. 

1. From Galilee to Bethany (9: 51-10: 42). 


Three Synoptic Gospels . 115 


Final departure from Galilee, rejection by the 
Samaritans, three would-be disciples, mission of the 
seventy, parable of the Good Samaritan, visit at 
Bethany. 

2, Work in Perea (11: I-17: 10). 
The Lord’s Prayer, Beelzebub, sign of Jonah, woes 
against the Pharisees, the rich fool, Galileans slain 
by Pilate, warning against Herod, parables of the 
lost-found, the unjust steward, the rich man and 
Lazarus. 

3. Final journey to Jerusalem (17: 12-19: 28). 

The ten lepers, when cometh the kingdom, Pharisees 
and Publican, blessing children, the rich ruler, blind 
man and Zaccheus at Jericho. 

IV. The Last Week at Jerusalem, Chapters 20-24. 
The triumphal! entry, teaching, passover, death and 
resurrection. 


The Synoptic Problem 


Literature: 

Vollmer, Philip, “ The Modern Student’s Life of Christ.” 

Consult the literature in Chapters 1 and 14. 

The first three Gospels are called Synoptists 
(syn-opsis, 2. e., “a common view”), because they 
view the life of Christ from a common standpoint, 
in contrast to John’s altogether different treatment. 

(1) The resemblances among the three Gospels 
are, (a) a common plan (infancy,—the forerun- 
ner, baptism and temptation,—ministry in Galilee 
—passion); (b) a common selection of incidents. 
Of 88 incidents, they have 71 in common, and only 
17 exclusive (Matt. 5, Mark 3, Luke 9); (c) sam- 
war groups of scenes (death of John is introduced 
parenthetically by all three to explain Herod’s ter- 
ror). (d) Verbal agreements, not only in sayings 
of Jesus, which might be due to tradition, but also 
in narrative passages. 


116 The Writings of the New Testament 


(2) The differences among the three gospels 
are:—(a) Accounts of different events—about 17; 
(b) differences in several accounts of the same 
events (order of temptations in Matt. and Luke, 
blind men at Jericho). (c) Verbal differences, 

(3) The Synoptic-Problem is to find a theory 
which will account for the resemblances and dif- 
ferences in these Gospels, and thus answer the ques- 
tion: how did the first three Gospels originate? 

(4) Proposed Solutions of the Synoptic Prob- 
lem:—(a) Theory of oral tradition. ‘The rabbin- 
ical method of teaching by constant repetition of 
the same forms had fixed these forms so 
thoroughly in the minds of the early disciples that 
when later they began to write their Gospels inde- 
pendently, each one naturally used these stereo- 
typed phrases.—(b) Theory of mutual dependence. 
Matthew’s Gospel is based on “ oral tradition ”; 
Mark abbreviated Matthew, and Luke used both. 
The order may also be reversed.—(c) Theory of 
original documents, such as referred to in Luke 
1: 1-4. Two are usually mentioned: Matthew’s 
Logia, containing sayings of Christ, and a primitive 
Mark (Ur-Markus), known as source “Q,” still 
simpler than our Mark, for the narrative. Besides 
these each had independent sources, as, e. g., for 
the infancy, the Perean period and the resurrection. 


Note—Acts 1:22 and 2:42 seem to suggest that very 
early a definite “ course of Christian instruction” had gained 
currency in the primitive Church, the contents of which 
were, according to Jewish methods of teaching, committed 
to memory by dint of frequent repetition. Probably frag- 


Three Synoptic Gospels 117 


ments of this “course” were soon committed to writing 
and later some of these records may have been used in 
constructing our four Gospels (Luke I: 1-4). 

(5) The “ original document theory” is the one 
generally accepted at present as furnishing the 
most scientific answer to the question: How did our 
present first three Gospels originate? 


CHAPTER XVI 
JOHN’S GOSPEL AND THE BOOK OF ACTS 


The Gospel According to John 


Literature: 

Consult literature in Chapters 1 and 14, especially “ Hast- 
ings’ B. D.,” Vol. II, pp. 680-728. 

Godet, ‘Commentary on John” (2 vol.). 

Zahn, “ Das Evangelium Johannes.” 


The Author:—John, the son of Zebedee and 
Salome, brother of James the elder, called by Jesus 
at the Jordan after the temptation. Later banished 
to Patmos, died at Ephesus about 100. Author of 
five New Testament books. (Which?) 

Authenticity of the Book:—(a) External evi- 
dence. As early as 125, verses from this Gospel 
are quoted by Basilides, although he does not 
mention the author. ‘The first one to mention John 
as the author is Theophilus of Antioch in 170.— 
(b) Internal evidence. 'The Gospel shows, (1) 
that it was written by a Jew (not a Gentile 
Gnostic), for he quotes the O. T. from LXX and 
the Hebrew, and his style and spirit are Hebraistic. 
(2) A Palestinian, for he is familiar with the 
minute topography (Cana, Jacob’s Well, places in 
Jerusalem). (38) A contemporary with the events 
described. He knows that the Samaritans expect 
the Messiah. He makes no reference to Gnosti- 

118 


John’s Gospel and Acts 119 


cism of the 2nd century. (4) He was an eye- 
witness. ‘Three times he claims this: 1:14; 19: 
85; 21: 24. The vivid details of the Gospel sug- 
gest the same. 

Objections to John’s Authorship:—(a) Incon- 
sistency with the character of John. In the synop- 
tists he is a “Son of Thunder,” passionate, but 
in John he is “the beloved disciple.” Answer: 
Cannot both go together ?—(0) Inconsistency with 
the book of Revelation in style, tone and teaching. 
The Gospel is in good Greek, but Revelation is 
faulty; the Gospel is liberal, Revelation, narrow. 
Answer: Revelation was written earlier (in 69) 
and the Gospel in his riper old age, when his lan- 
guage, views and experience had undergone 
changes. (c) Inconsistency with the S‘ynoptists. 
The Synoptists speak mostly of Christ’s work in 
Galilee, John of that in Judea; the Synoptists give 
one year, as the duration of Christ’s ministry, but 
John three. Answer: Luke 13: 34 shows that even 
the Synoptists indicate more than one passover and 
one visit to Jerusalem. Contains no parables and 
little about the kingdom of God. 

Solution of the Admitted Difficulties:—(a) The 
Synoptists are more objective chronicles, while in 
the fourth Gospel the teaching of Christ went 
through the crucible of John’s personality, and is a 
reproduction and interpretation of Christ’s life and 
teaching in John’s own language and in contempo- 
rary forms of thought. Hence the similarities in 
the sayings of Christ and the Baptist’s to John’s 


120 The Writings of the New Testament 


own. (0b) John’s Gospel is avowedly an argument 
(20: 380, 81). Its selection of material is con- 
fessedly partial, its aim being to confirm the faith 
of the Christians. Many of the best histories are 
written from this standpoint (Sallust). 

Date and Place:—Between 85 and 90, probably 
at Ephesus; hence it is the latest of the New Testa- 
ment books. 

Characteristics: Clement of Alexandria called 
it the “ Spiritual Gospel” (See Chap. 14). Christ 
is the manifestation in human form of a Divine 
Being and the only source of life and light (1: 1- 
18). It touches only slightly on the return of 
Christ in visible form, while his coming in the 
spirit is strongly stressed (Chaps. 14-17). 

Contents:—John’s Gospel contains twenty-one 
chapters. 


I. The Prologue (Preface) of the Gospel, expressing the 
central doctrine of the book in terms of current 
thought (1: 1-18). 

Il. Christs Early Mintstry, 1: 19-4: 54. 

1. In Judea—vTestimony of the Baptist to the Pharisees, 
the people and the first disciples of Jesus (1: 19-51). 

2. In Galilee—First miracle at Cana and short visit at 
Capernaum (2: I-12). 

3. In Jerusalem and Judea—First cleansing of the tem- 
ple, discourse with Nicodemus, preaching in northern 
Judea and the Baptist’s testimony of Christ’s superi- 
ority (2: 13-3: 36). 

4. In Samaria.—Self-revelation to the Samaritan 
woman, preaching in Samaria (4: I-42). 

5. In Galilee—Favorable reception and at Cana, cure 
of the nobleman’s son (4: 43-54). 

III. Central Period of Christ’s Ministry, Chapters 5-12. 

I. In Judea—Cure of the infirm man at Bethesda, 
leading to a controversy on the Sabbath question 
(Chap. 5). 


John’s Gospel and Acts 121 


2. In Galilee—Feeding of the 5000, leading to a con- 
troversy on the bread of life and the crisis at Caper- 
naum (Chap. 6). 

3. In Judea—At the Feast of Tabernacles Jesus defends 
healing on the Sabbath, claims to be the Messiah, the 
light of the world, the source of true liberty and to 
have preéxisted before Abraham (Chapters 7 and 8). 

4. In Judea.—At the Feast of Dedication, cure on a 
Sabbath of the man born blind, claiming to be the 
good shepherd, resulting in an attempt to stone him 
(Chapters 9 and Io). 

5. From Perea to Bethany.—Raising of Lazarus and 
retirement to Ephraim (Chapter 11). 

IV. Last Week in Jerusalem, Chapters 12-21. 

1. Anointing of Jesus, triumphant entry, visit of Greeks 
and final departure from the Temple (Chapter 12). 

2. Passover, farewell conversations and highpriestly 
prayer (Chapters 13-17). 

2 ey trial, death and resurrection (Chapters 18- 
20). 

4. Appendix to the Gospel, recording Peter’s reinstate- 
ment at the Sea of Tiberias (Chapter 21). 


The Book of Acts 


Literature: 

Consult bibliography in Chapters 1 and 14. 

Hill, W. B., “ The Apostolic Age.” 

Ropes, J. H., “ The Apostolic Age in the Light of Modern 
Criticism.” 

Norton, “ The Rise of Christianity.” 

Burton, “ Records and Letters of the Apostolic Age.” 

Scott, “ Beginnings of the Church.” 

Dobschutz, “ Christian Life in the Primitive Church.” 

Books on the Ap. Age by McGiffert, Purves, Bartlet, etc. 

Hayes, “The Gift of Speaking with "Tongues, : 

Mosiman, “ Das Zungenreden.” 


The Author:—Luke, the writer of the third 
Gospel, as appears from the reference to the 
“former treatise,” the mention of “ Theophilus,” 
from the similarity of style, and the quality of the 
Greek. That the author must have been a friend 


122 The Writings of the New Testament 


of Paul is evidenced by the Pauline spirit and 
viewpoint of the book, by the undesigned coinct- 
dences between Paul’s epistles and Acts, by the 
large space Paul’s life occupies, and by the “ we”’ 
sections (16: 10-18; 20: 5-21: 17; 27: 1-28: 16) 
which must have been written by an eye-witness.— 
Copious external evidence in favor of the origin of 
Acts in the Apostolic Age and of Luke’s author- 
ship is found in Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Poly- 
carp, Irenzeus, the Muratorian Canon, the Acts of 
St. Paul and Thekla, the Peshitto, the Itala, etc. 
The “tendency theory” of the Baur-Tuebingen 
School of N. T. Criticism has been totally dis- 
proved. 

Source of Material :—For the first part (Chaps. 
1-12) Luke no doubt followed the same method as 
in writing his Gospel (Luke 1: 1-4). For the 
second part, he drew on his experiences as an eye- 
witness and on Paul (e. g., for Chap. 15). 

The Historicity and Credibility of Acts has been 
questioned on the following points:—(1) Acts 
records three early visits of Paul to Jerusalem, in 
9:26; 11:30; and 15:4, while Paul himself in 
Galatians 1: 18; 2:1 mentions only two, and on 
such a personal matter, Paul’s own statement must 
be considered decisive.—Answer: Luke writes as a 
historian giving a full record, while Paul in Ga- 
latians aims to prove an argument and therefore 
mentions only such visits as were necessary to sus- 
tain his point.—(2) Acts 5: 36, 37 quotes Gama- 
liel to the effect that the insurrection of Theudas 


John’s Gospel and Acts 123 


preceded that of Judas, while Josephus (Ant. 20, 
5, 1) reports that it took place ten years after the 
one by Judas. Answer:—Either Luke or Josephus 
made a mistake; or either referred to different men 
by the same name, as there were so many upheavals 
in those times. Luke’s great precision in giv- 
ing the titles of officials, geographical allusions and 
nautical expressions, etc., prove him to be a very 
trustworthy historian. 

Aim and Design of Acts is stated in 1: 8. It is 
a history of the planting and extension of the 
Church, both among Jews and Gentiles, by the 
gradual establishment of radiating centres of in- 
fluence at certain salient points throughout a large 
part of the empire, beginning at Jerusalem and 
ending at Rome. The ancient title, ‘‘ Acts of the 
Apostles ” is therefore misleading. 

Date and Place of Writing:—About 75-80, at 
Philippi or Antioch. 

Contents:—Acts contains twenty-eight chapters. 


I. The Church in Jerusalem, 1: 1-8: 1. 

1. Introduction—Renewed Apostolic commission, Ascen- 
sion and choice of Mathias (Chapter 1). 

2. Growth of the Church.—Coming of the Spirit, first 
imprisonment, sin of Ananias, second imprisonment, 
choosing of the deacons (2: 1-6: a). 

2) CO LESSUG teaching—Stephen’s martyr’s death (6: 


Ta). 
II. The ¢ aieen in Transition, 8: 16-12: 25. 

1. Philip in Samaria and conversion of the Ethiopian 
(8: 1b—40). 

2. Paul’s Conversion, first preaching and visit at Jeru- 

salem (9: I-31). 

3. Peter at Joppa, Lydda, Cesarea and defense at Jeru- 

salem (9: 32-11: 18). 


124 


The Writings of the New Testament 


Spread of the Gospel in Phcenicia, Cyprus and 
Antioch in Syria (11: 19-30). 

Martyr’s death of James, third imprisonment, and 
flight of Peter, death of Herod Agrippa I (Chapter 


12). 
III. The Church Among the Gentiles, Chapters 13-28. 


I. 


Paul’s first missionary journey. Appointment, Cy- 
prus, Perga, Antioch in Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, 
Derbe and return to Antioch in Syria (Chapters 13 
and 14). 

The Council at Jerusalem about the Judaistic con- 

troversy (15: I-35). 

Paul’s second missionary journey.—Revisit of 

Churches, Troas, Philippi, ‘Thessalonica, Bercea, 

Athens, Corinth, Ephesus, Cesarea, Jerusalem, An- 

tioch in Syria (15: 36-18: 22). 

Paul’s Third Missionary Journey.—Revisiting 

Churches, Ephesus, Macedonia, Corinth, ‘Troas, 

Miletus, Tyre, Cesarea, Jerusalem (18: 23-21: 16). 

are ey Imprisonment and work at Rome (21: 17- 

2 

(a) Precene the Church at Jerusalem, arrest in the 
Temple, speech to the Jews, defense before the 
Council (21: 17-23: 10). 

(b) Two years’ imprisonment at Czsarea, defense 
before Felix, Festus, appeal to Cesar, defense 
before Herod Agrippa II (23: 11-26: 32). 

Voyage to Rome and shipwreck at Melita, journey 

to Rome, first Roman imprisonment and preaching in 

Rome (Chapters 27 and 28). 


The Twenty-one Didactic Books 
of the New Testament 


CHAPTER XVII 


GENERAL ASPECTS OF THE NEW 
TESTAMENT EPISTLES 


Literature: 
Consult the bibliography in Chaps. 1 and 14 on the various 
subjects. 


Character and Dates 


One of the literary characteristics of the N. T., 
as compared with other sacred books, is the 
epistolary character of a large part of its contents. 
The adjective “ didactic ” suggests that the Gospel 
teaching in these 21 letters is presented chiefly in 
the form of doctrinal statements, instead of in the 
form of history, poetry or philosophy, as in the 
Old Testament, the Gospels, and the Acts. 


Note 1—Letter-writing, official as well as private, has been 
a very ancient practice and was very common in the first 
century (II Sam. 11:14, 15; I Kings 21:8, 9; II Kings 5:5; 
Acts 9:2; 15:22, 23; Babylonian—Assyrian tablets, the 
Egyptian papyri, Cicero, Seneca, etc.). 

Note 2—The two words used interchangeably for these 
twenty-one writings: “epistle’ (from the Greek) and “letter” 
(from the Latin), are synonymous; but modern specialists 
draw a distinction between them, using “epistle” for a def- 
inite type of literary production, an essay or a discussion 
set in letter form; and “letter” which is to denote an actual, 
personal communication between two parties (Hastings’ 
B. D., Vol. I, p. 730; Deissmann, “ New Light from the 

125 


126 The Writings of the New Testament 


East,” pp. 143-246; Kent, “ Apost. Age,” p. 125). By this 
test all the twenty-one didactic writings of the N. T. are 
“letters,’ even those most systematically and orderly ar- 
ranged, like Romans, I Corinthians and Hebrews. 


Classification 


(1) According ta authorship the twenty-one N. 
T. epistles fall into three groups:—Thirteen by 
Paul (which?) ; Hebrews, by an unknown author; 
seven general or “catholic” epistles, the adjective 
referring to the more general character of their 
contents and destination (which?). 

(2) According to destination:—six are ad- 
dressed to individuals (which?); ten to local 
Churches (which?); five to groups of Churches 
(which?). 

(8) According to time of writing. The dates 
set for most of the epistles can claim only approxi- 
mate accuracy. The following is a provisional 
table of dates. A more specific discussion of this 
subject will follow later in connection with the 
study of each particular letter. 

Epistle of James.—Before 50 A. D. 

Paul’s thirteen Letters.—53-67 A. D. 

Peter’s and Jude’s Letters.—63—64 a. D. 

Epistle to the Hebrews.—75 A. D. 

John’s three Letters.—90 a. p. 

(Compare “ Chronological Table” in Chap. 6.) 


Value and Importance 


The N. T. epistles differ greatly in value. Some 
of them are, as to quantity and quality, elaborate 


Aspects New Testament Epistles 127 


and argumentative treatises on most important 
subjects (which?); while others are little more 
than private notes (which?).—Although most of 
the epistles were written earlier than our four Gos- 
pels, they contain a more advanced stage of the- 
ological teaching than the Gospels, because they 
represent the fruit of 10-30 years reflection and 
experience regarding the great events recorded in 
the Gospels, such as the significance of the person 
and work of Christ, justification by faith, etc. 


Lost and Spurious Epistles 


It is generally believed that some genuine letters 
written by the Apostles and other leaders of the 
Apostolic Church are lost to us. This is very 
probable, for it is unlikely that men engaged in 
lifelong, extended evangelistic activities like Paul, 
Peter, John, James, and others should have written 
only 1-18 letters. In the case of Paul such losses 
are definitely implied in his extant epistles. (See 
next chapter. ) 

A number of spurious letters, attributed to 
Barnabas, Diognetius, Polycarp, Clement of Rome, 
Ignatius, etc., were so popular among the early 
Christians that some of them are found incor- 
porated with our canonical epistles in our oldest 
and most important Greek manuscripts. 


Advantages of the Epistolary Form of 
Literature 
(1) Christian teaching conveyed by personal 


128 The Writings of the New Testament 


communications touching real life on a great va- 
riety of subjects makes a deeper impression than 
when cast in the form of treatises or abstract defi- 
nitions.—(2) In a letter, being a direct communi- 
cation, the personality of the writer stands before 
us more prominently, showing his interest and 
pouring out his very soul in unrestrained expres- 
sions of his various feelings.—(3) By a combina- 
tion of both characteristics a true photograph of 
the actual circumstances of the individual con- 
gregation as well as of the general condition of 
Apostolic Christianity is presented, saving us from 
too great idealization (Corinthians, James, etc.). 


Disadvantages of the Epistolary Form of 
Literature 

(1) An absence of a more comprehensive treat- 
ment of fundamental theological and ethical doc- 
trines, and of fuller information on the conditions 
of the Churches; (2) Points which even at the 
time of writing were of merely local interest (be- 
havior of women), are treated with fulness, while 
theological and ethical subjects which proved per- 
plexing problems even then and which have exer- 
cised the minds of thinking persons in all ages 
(nature of Christ, the Trinity, slavery, property), 
are only slightly touched upon or are entirely 
absent, making subsequent ages dependent on mere 
inferences. 


Genuineness of the Epistles 
After the long sustained and severe attacks on 


Aspects New Testament Epistles 129 


the genuineness of most of the epistles by the Baur- 
Tuebingen school of N. T. criticism, modern 
scholarship, both conservative and liberal, has 
come, almost unanimously, to the conclusion that 
all of the 21 epistles were written in the first cen- 
tury by the traditional authors, with the possible 
exception of Paul’s Pastoral epistles and II Peter. 
(See “ Foreword” and the following chapters. ) 


CHAPTER XVIII 


LIFE AND WORK OF ST. PAUL 


Literature: 

From the great mass of literature on Paul, only a few 
books can be mentioned. 

Book of Acts: 7:58-8:33; 9:1-30; II: 19-20; 12:25; 
Chaps. 13-28. 

Epistle to the Galatians, 1: 11-2: 21;—II Cor. 11: 32-33. 
Consult the bibliography in Chaps 1 and 14. 

Gilbert, “ Student’s Life of Paul.” 

Robertson, “ Epochs in the Life of Paul.” 

Peabody, “The Apostle Paul and the Modern World.” 
Lag Matte “The Religion of Jesus and the Faith of 

au 

ects “Fundamentals of Christianity,” Chaps. 6, 7, 8 
an 

Mees ian “The Ethics of Paul.” 

Hausleiter, “ Paulus.” 

Smith, “ Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul.” 

Knope, “ Paulus.” 

Ramsay, “et. Paul, the Traveler and Roman Citizen.” 

Gardner, ‘ ‘Religious Experiences of Pau 

Thackery, ‘ ‘The Relation of Paul to Canennor es Jewish 
Thought.” 

Matheson, “ The Spiritual Development of Paul.” 

Pfleiderer, “ Christian Origins,’ pp. 155-281. 


For an adequate understanding of Paul’s 
epistles which will be next in order in our studies, a 
sketch of the life of their author is essential, be- 
cause his great personality lies back of them, is in- 
terwoven with them and is expressed through them. 

Birth, Family and Name. Paul was probably 
born in 7 A. D., at Tarsus in Asia Minor, and was 
therefore a “ Hellenist.”—Of his parents nothing 

130 


Life and Work of St. Paul 131 


is known, except that his father was a “‘ Hebrew ” 
(Phil. 3:5), 2. e., a Jew maintaining the Hebrew 
language and customs in his family. Paul had at 
least one sister and a nephew (Acts 23:6). In 
Romans 16: 7, 11, 21, he sends greetings to “ kins- 
men ”—Junias, Herodian, Jason.—His Jewish 
name was Saul (The Desired) and his Roman 
name, Paul (“The Small’), both of which he 
very likely received in his infancy, as was the 
case with other Jews (John Mark).—Through his 
father he inherited Roman citizenship. He was 
also a citizen of Tarsus (Acts 21: 39). 

Education. Paul was bilingual, having very 
probably received a Greek education at Tarsus, for 
he shows extensive knowledge of the Greek lan- 
guage, history, and philosophy (Rom. 1: 18-32; 
I Cor. 1-3; Acts 17: 22); he quotes from three 
Greek poets: Menander (I Cor. 15: 33) ; Epimeni- 
des (Tit. 1:12) and Aratus (Acts 17:28). In 
Jerusalem, he probably entered the Scribal College 
after his confirmation, one of his teachers being 
the famous Gamaliel. That he was a gifted and 
industrious student is inferred from Gal. 1: 14.— 
Though Acts 26: 4, 5 implies continuous residence, 
yet he is silent about having seen the Lord.—As 
the rabbis were expected to teach gratuitously, he 
learned the trade of tent-maker (Acts 18: 3). 

The Pharisee and Persecutor. He belonged 
to the sect of the Pharisees (Acts 23:6) and as 
such became a most bitter enemy of the new 
Church. Acts 8:1 and 26: 10 may imply that he 


182 The Writings of the New Testament 


was a member of the Jewish Council. Acts 8:3 
and 26: 12 shows that Paul was an officially dele- 
gated inquisitor for the Sanhedrin, with the power 
to arrest Jews even outside of Palestine-—In perse- 
cuting the Church his motives were pure; but just 
because he was a conscientious fanatic, he was the 
more dangerous. 

Conversion and Private Evangelism. About 
36 A. D. Paul was suddenly converted to Christ at 
Damascus and baptized. After this his movements 
were as follows: Preaching Christ in Damascus; 
persecution and three years retirement to Arabia 
(36-39); return to Damascus, preaching, persecu- 
tion and flight to Jerusalem; fifteen days’ visit 
with Peter; vision in the Temple and retirement 
to Syria, followed by about six years of silence 
(39-45), during which the churches mentioned in 
Acts 15: 41 may have been founded; about 46 A. p. 
call to the new Church at Antioch and one year’s 
work, during which he carried alms to Jerusalem 
(Acts 11: 30). 

The Appointed Foreign Missionary, for about 
20 years, 46-66 A. D. 


Draw a map tracing Paul’s several missionary journeys 
with different colors. 


First Missionary Journey, 46—49.—Read Acts 
Chaps. 13 and 14. 

Appointment at Antioch, Cyprus, Perga, Antioch 
in Pisidia (first recorded address), Iconium 
(escaped stoning), Lystra (first deified, then 
stoned), Derbe, return to Antioch in Syria. — 


Life and Work of St. Paul 133 


Council at Jerusalem concerning the obligation 
of the Mosaic Law, 50 a. p.—dActs 15: 1-85; 
Gal. 2: 1-21. 

Second Missionary Journey, 51-54 A. p.—Acts 
15: 36-18: 22a. 

Dissension between Paul and Barnabas, visit of 
Churches in Syria and Cilicia, Lystra (call of 
Timothy), Galatia, Troas, Philippi, Thessalonica, 
Bercea, Athens, Corinth (18 months, writing of I 
and II Thess.), Ephesus, Ceesarea, Jerusalem and 
Antioch. . 

Third Missionary Journey, 54-58 a. D.—Acts 
18: 23-21: 6. 

Galatia, Ephesus (8 years, writing of I Cor.), 
Troas, Macedonia (writing of II Cor.), probably 
Illyricum (Rom. 15:19), Corinth (38 months; 
writing of Romans and Galatians), return to 
Philippi, Troas, Miletus, Tyre (7 days), Ptolemais 
(one day), Ceesarea, Jerusalem. 

Prisoner and Martyr, 58-67 a. p.—Acts 21: 
17-28: 31. 

Short Imprisonment at Jerusalem—arrest, ad- 
dress to the people, trial before the Sanhedrin, plot 
and removal to Czsarea. 

Two Years’ Imprisonment at Cesarea—hearing 
before Felix, Drusilla, Festus, appeal to Cesar, 
hearing before Agrippa IJ, sent to Rome. 

Imprisonment on the Mediterranean—at Melita 
(8 months), and on the journey to Rome. 

Two Years’ Imprisonment at Rome—writing of 


1384 The Writings of the New Testament 


Colossians, Philemon, Ephesians and Philippians; 
release in 63. 

Fourth Missionary Journey—probably to Eph- 
esus, Miletus, Troas, Macedonia, Corinth, Nicop- 
olis, Crete, Spain; writing of I Tim. and Titus. 

Second Roman Imprisonment—writing of II 
Tim. and martyr’s death, about 67 a. p. 


Personality of Paul 


Paul’s outward appearance is supposed to have 
been unpretentious (II Cor. 10: 10; but not Acts 
14:12). ‘The apocryphal “ Acts of St. Paul and 
Thekla ”’ describes him as “a man little of stature, 
bald, short-legged, corpulent, with eyebrows meet- 
ing and a prominent nose.’’—In several places he 
complains of ill health (II Cor. 12: 17; Gal. 4: 13), 
the nature of which is variously explained: (1) an 
eye-disease; (2) epilepsy; (8) nervous prostra- 
tion; (4) sudden attacks of cramps; (5) malaria 
fever causing severe headaches.—But judging from 
his arduous, long-continued, successful work and 
his many persecutions, he must have had on the 
whole a strong constitution. 

As to vigor of mind and education, Paul may be 
placed alongside the greatest intellects of history. 
In Paul were combined much of the results of the 
three civilizations of that time: Jewish religion, 
Greek culture and Roman citizenship. 

Paul’s emotional life was highly developed. He 
had the choleric temperament and a strong capacity 
for making and holding friends—I Cor. 7: 7, 8 


Life and Work of St. Paul 135 


implies that Paul was not married at the time. 
As verse 7 speaks of this state as a “ gift,” it is 
assumed that he never had been married. Did he 
remain unmarried from lack of sexual affinity, or 
from ascetic principles, or from missionary policy, 
or because he believed the return of Christ to be 
near at hand? The language in I Cor. 7, how- 
ever, would be suitable also for a widower. Hence, 
Clement of Alexandria, Eusebius, Luther and 
others believed that he had been married in his 
younger years. 

Paul was possessed of unusual will power and 
determination, manifesting itself in self-denying 
labor and great moral as well as physical courage. 

Thus Paul in his inner life shows three char- 
acteristics rarely found united: vigor of intellect, 
liveliness of feeling, great will power. 


Paul’s Advantages for Leadership 


(1) He was a Jew. As a Jew he would have 
a training in Bible knowledge, and in the faith of 
a coming Messiah such as no Gentile could possess. 
Moreover, the work in nearly all the places must 
begin in the synagogue, and only a Jew could take 
part in its services——(2) He was a trained and 
recognized rabli, 7. e., an accredited teacher of the 
law, “a college man” with the prestige of scholar- 
ship. Such a teacher would be welcome in any 
synagogue.—(3) He was a Hellenist, i. e., a Jew 
of the Dispersion, who on account of environment 
were broader than the Jews of Palestine. He was 


186 The Writings of the New Testament 


a traveler acquainted with the world, speaking 
Greek as fluently as Hebrew, an absolute necessity 
for preaching to the Gentiles (Acts 21: 387, 40). 
He spoke to the Greek philosophers in their own 
tongue and after their own manner.—(4) He was 
by birth a Roman-citizgen (Acts 16: 87; 22: 25- 
28). This privilege undoubtedly saved Paul more 
than once from torture and death—(5) He was a 
divinely-called Apostle, speaking with authority 
(Gal. i: 1; I Cor. 9: 1).—(6) He possessed rare 
natural endowments for his work. (a) He wasa 
man of sympathy, warm-hearted and tender, mak- 
ing strong friendships. (b) He was a preacher of 
great power, and people would always listen to him 
with the deepest interest (Acts 17: 22-81; 22: 1, 
2; 26: 1-26). (c) He wasa theologian. Under the 
guidance of the Spirit he formulated a system of 
doctrine (Gal. 1:11, 12), which he sometimes 
called “my Gospel” (Rom. 2: 16; II Tim. 2: 8). 
This ‘“‘ Gospel according to Paul” came to be the 
theology of the Church. (d) He possessed rare 
tact in dealing with men; knew how to adapt his 
methods to the people of varied races and views. 
(e) He was a natural leader of men; ready to take 
responsibilities, quick to decide, yet thoughtful of 
others, not imperious and self-willed. (f) He 
was a tireless worker; undiscouraged by hardship 
(II Cor. 11: 23-28), although he seems to have 
been delicate in health. 


Life and Work of St. Paul 137 


Paul’s Methods of Work 


These varied greatly according to circumstances, 
but in all of them we may note certain principles: 
—(1) He took fellow workers with him (name 
some of his companions on the various journeys). 
This method supplied mutual encouragement, for 
Paul was social, loved companionship and was 
sometimes melancholy when alone (Acts 17: 15, 
Oe Corse 3) 13 yl Cor: 7215;'6).” Moreover 
there was power in such cooperation and a chance 
for training younger workers (Mark, Timothy, 
Titus ).—(2) He chose the cities, and of these the 
most important centers of population:—Antioch, 
Thessalonica, Corinth, Ephesus, Rome.—(8) He 
supported himself by his trade (Acts 18:3; I 
Cor. 4: 12; I Thess. 2:9; Acts 21: 34).—-(4) He 
began preaching in the synagogue, in which Paul 
could speak as an accepted rabbi (Acts 13: 5; Acts 
14: 1; Acts 17:1; Acts 18:4, 19). This method 
gave him access also to the thoughtful, serious Gen- 
tiles who were seeking after God. At Antioch in 
Pisidia he addressed both these classes (Acts 13: 
16).—(5) He formed acquaintance with rulers 
and influential men in many places (Acts 13: 7; 
Acts 17: 34; Rom. 16: 23; Acts 19: 31; Acts 28: 
7). These friendships were often of great service 
to Paul, especially when opposed by his own peo- 
ple—(6) He strengthened his work by frequently 
revisiting his churches.—(7) He used the pen as 
well as the voice. He wrote many letters, not so 
much to spread the Gospel as to strengthen and in- 


188 The Writings of the New Testament 


struct the Church which he had planted. Of these 
we will now speak in detail. 


Paul the Author 
Literature: 


Peabody, “The Apostle Paul and the Modern World,” 


Chap 3. 
Albrecht, L., “ Briefe des N. T.” 


Four Chronological Groups. Of Paul’s let- 
ters thirteen are extant, written within a period 
of about 14 years, 53-67 a. Db. All the dates are 
only approximate, but when once a general scherne 
of chronology of the Apostolic Age has been ac- 
cepted, they fall into their places with sufficient 
accuracy with not more than about a year’s varia- 
tion forward or backward. ‘Their date and prob- 
able sequence may be stated as follows: 

First Chronological Group, written on the sec- 
ond missionary journey.— 

I Thessalonians, A. p. 58, from Corinth. 
II Thessalonians, a. D. 58, from Corinth. 

Second Chronological Group, during the third 

missionary journey.— 
I Corinthians, 57, from Ephesus. 
II Corinthians, 58, from Macedonia. 
Romans, 58, from Corinth. 
Galatians, 58, from Corinth. 

Third Chronological Group, during the first 

Roman Imprisonment. 
Colossians, 62, from Rome. 
Philemon, 62, from Rome. 
Ephesians, 63, from Rome. 
Philippians, 63, from Rome. 


Life and Work of St. Paul 139 


Fourth Chronological Group, during the closing 
years of Paul’s life. 
I Timothy, 65, place unknown. 
Titus, 65, place unknown. 
II Timothy, 66, Second Roman Imprison- 
ment. 


Note 1—The statements appended to the several letters in 
some Greek manuscripts and the Authorized version, pro- 
fessing to give information concerning the place of writing 
and the persons through whom the letters were transmitted, 
did not originate with Paul, are worded diversely in the 
various Greek manuscripts, are in many cases erroneous, and 
were therefore omitted in the American Standard Bible. 

Note 2—The order of Paul’s letters in the N. T. are 
meaningless, the earliest and latest standing closely together. 
This order may have been determined either by relative bulk, 
or by the comparative rank of the Churches to which they 
were addressed, or in which they were used, or by the sup- 
posed importance of their contents. The chronological order 
is the most helpful for intelligent study, as it enables us to 
trace the progressive development of the Apostle’s ideas and 
of the development of the Churches. Next to date, the oc- 
casion which evoked an epistle and the object in writing it 
will assist in a thorough understanding of its contents. 
Without knowledge of these points, many of the passages 
lose their true significance. 


Lost Letters of Paul 


The belief that Paul must have written more 
than thirteen letters is forced upon the student by 
the following considerations: —(1) References and 
allusions to non-extant letters in II Thess. 3: 17; 
Coren 79 salu Cor, 10::9,.10) Colt4016; 0b ph: 
8:3; Phil. 3: 18.—(2) Intimations that he received 
messages by letters and persons which would call 
for an answer and no doubt were answered, in I 
finesse oO-s1L. bhessy O11? b Corey ite Tabs 


140 The Writings of the New Testament 


16: S20 0l) Gore: Lt Romi ale8 Coles 
4:16, 18. According to II Cor. 10: 10 Paul had 
written several letters to the Corinthians, but only 
one is extant of a date prior to the use of that 
language.—-(3) Rom. Chap. 16; II Cor. Chaps. 1- 
9; 6: 14-7: 1; Chaps. 10-13 are by many scholars 
considered as fragments of complete letters —(4) 
The fact that Paul’s earliest extant epistle dates 
from a. D. 53, that is, fifteen years after his con- 
version and that intervals of four and five years 
occur between some of the extant letters is difficult 
to harmonize with Paul’s warm interest and care 
for the churches scattered throughout the Roman 
empire which could be exercised only by frequent 
correspondence (II Cor. 11: 28).—(5) Yet, it is 
very unlikely that any important epistle has been 
lost, for such a letter would in all probability have 
left traces in early Church literature, whereas all 
the quotations found in the ancient writers are 
taken from our extant epistles. 


Literary Characteristics of Paul’s Letters 


All of Paul’s epistles are real letters, that is 
personal communications called forth by definite 
occasions and circumstances of the people to whom 
they were sent, seven being addressed to single 
Churches (which?); two, to groups of Churches 
(which?) ; three, to Church officials (which?) ; one 
to an individual on a private matter (which?). 

The letters addressed to the Churches were to be 
publicly read to all the members (I Thess. 5: 27). 


Life and Work of St. Paul | 141 


The usual structure of Paul’s letters is similar 
to that of the letters of Greeks and Romans of the 
time:—(1) Name of the writer, often associating 
his travelling companions with himself (I Thess. 
1:1; I Cor. 1:1, etc.);—(2) Address in the 
phraseology of the time, but enriched with deeper 
meaning ;—(38) Greetings;—(4) Thanksgiving 
and commendation ;—(5) A doctrinal part on sub- 
jects required by the condition of the Churches ;— 
(6) A practical section on moral and social duties; 
—(7) Personal messages ;—(8) Salutations to and 
from individuals ;—(9) Benediction, often in auto- 
graph, serving as an authentication. 

As a rule, Paul dictated his letters (with the 
probable exception of Philemon), either from some 
defect of eyesight, or from an inability to write 
easily, or from custom and convenience. Rom. 16: 
22 discloses the name of the secretary; in other 
cases we may guess at one of his associates men- 
nonuea? (leCoret ss Ti Cor. 1: 1). 

Being written by another person, some kind of 
authentication seemed necessary, especially as for- 
geries were circulating (II Thess. 2:2). Evidently 
not being accustomed to the use of a regular seal, 
the authentication usually consisted in adding a few 
words by his own hand, written probably in a 
peculiar manner (II Thess. 3:17, 18; I Cor. 16: 
21-24; Col. 4:18; Rom. 16: 23, 24; Eph. 6: 25- 
27; Phil. 4: 21-23; II Cor. 18: 12-14; I Tim. 6: 
20, 21). 

Paul’s style and diction is logical, vigorous, 


142 The Writings of the New Testament 


strong, rapid, and rugged; often rhythmical (1 
Cor. 15: 42-44) ; full of climaxes (I Cor. 15: 53- 
55); frequently epigrammatical (I Cor. 3:6) and 
of lyric beauty, as I Cor. 13, of which the Greek 
scholar Von Norden says: “Since the Hymn of 
Cleanthes, nothing. at once so heartfelt and 
magnificent has been written in the Greek lan- 
guage.”’—The fact that Paul’s letters were spoken 
may account for the broken grammar, the abrupt 
introduction of new thoughts and for the rapidity 
of style, which the personal use of the pen would 
have regulated. 

Paul’s letters derive their permanent value from 
the powerful personality back of them, his devo- 
tion to a great cause revealed in them, the warm 
affection for his readers pervading them and from 
the fact that they are the oldest extant records of 
incidents in the life of Christ and of the faith of 
the primitive Church (I Cor. 15:1-9). Their 
value was speedily recognized by making an early 
collection of them and by their general use in the 
Churches (II Pet. 3: 16 and Marcion’s Canon). 

Present N. T. criticism almost unanimously 
favors the genuineness of Paul’s letters, with the 
exception of the Pastoral epistles which will be dis- 
cussed later. I and II Cor., Romans and Galatians 
were recognized even by the Baur-Tuebingen school 
as incontestable and therefore uncontested. (See 
“ Foreword.”’) 


CHAPTER XIX 


THE FIRST CHRONOLOGICAL GROUP OF 
Ber Ero bites 


I and II Thessalonians 


Literature: 
Consult the literature in Chaps. 1 and 14. 


First Thessalonians 


To Whom Written. “Unto the Church of 
the Thessalonians” (1: 1).—(1) The city, situated 
at the Thermaic Gulf, near Mount Olympus, was 
the capital of Macedonia, containing a large in- 
dustrial population, thousands of which were Jews 
who had a synagogue there.—(2) The Church was 
planted by Paul on his second missionary journey, 
in 52 A.D. (Acts 17: 1-11). His stay was short; 
for, because he preached the kingship of Jesus 
(Acts 17: 7), he was driven from the city and 
went to Bercea—(3) The majority of the mem- 
bers were Gentiles (I Thess. 1: 9; 2: 14), but Jews, 
proselytes and “ chief women ”’ are also mentioned 
(Acts 17: 4). 

Occasion. Hearing of their persecution and 
religious perplexities, Paul sent Timothy (and 
possibly also Silas) back to Thessalonica from 
Athens (I Thess. 3:2; Acts 18:5) to comfort 
them. At Corinth these messengers joined Paul 

143 


144 The Writings of the New Testament 


(Acts 18:5; I Thess. 3:6), reporting that pagan 
vices survived in the Church; that Paul’s character 
and motives had been attacked; and that they were 
disconcerted by the death of some members, ap- 
parently having understood Paul to teach that 
Christ’s return would occur before the death of 
any.—The object of this letter, therefore, was to 
vindicate his own character (2: 3-9); encourage 
them to loyalty in spite of persecution (2: 13-16) ; 
exhort them to holiness of life (4: 3-8); and to 
relieve them from the perplexity occasioned by the 
death of some members (4: 18-5: 11). 

When and Where Written. At Corinth, dur- 
ing Paul’s first visit, early in 53 A. D., soon after 
Timothy’s return from Thessalonica, as a com- 
parison of I Thess. 3: 1-6 with Acts 18: 5 implies. 

Contents in Detail. I Thess. contains five 
chapters. 


I, Epistolary Introduction—1: 1-10.—Address, greeting, 
thanksgiving. 

Il. The spirit and manner in which Paul conducted his 
ministry at Thess.—A refutation of charges against him and 
his co-workers (2: I-12). 

The way in which the Thess. received the Gospel.— 
2:13-16. You considered our message as the word of God. 
You remained firm in persecution as did the Jewish Chris- 
tians in Judea. 

IV. Paul’s loving interest in the Thess.—2: 17-3: 13.— 
Manifested in his desire to revisit them, in sending ‘Timothy 
to strengthen them, in Paul’s joy over Timothy’s good re- 
pot in Paul’s prayer that God may enable him to revisit the 

ess. 

V. Exhortations to special duties —4:1-12.—To Chris- 
tian consecration, to purity in sex relations, to brotherly love, 
to humility, honest work and becoming conduct toward non- 
Christians. 


Ss 


First Group of Paul’s Epistles 145 


VI. Detailed instructions concerning the second coming 
of Christ—4:13-5:11.—The Christians dying before the 
second advent are under no disadvantage compared with 
saees alive at that time, as the order of the coming events 
shows. 

VII. Exhortations concerning Church life.—5; 12~22. 

VIII. Conclusion.—s5 : 23-28. 


Second Thessalonians 

When and Where Written. At Corinth, in 
53 a. D., soon after First Thessalonians, as may 
be inferred from the following considerations: 
(1) Silas and Timothy are still with Paul (1:1). 
—(2) The words of 3:2 seem to point to the 
events described in Acts 18:12-17;—(8) the 
occasion demanded a speedy answer. 

Occasion. ‘l'o clear up their misunderstand- 
ing of the term “sudden” in I Thess. 5:38, re- 
ferring to the return of Christ, as if it meant 
“immediate,” in consequence of which some of 
them neglected their daily work and led a dis- 
orderly life. This error gained strength by 
toeceditetters' (2223.55.17). 

The object of Second Thessalonians, there- 
fore, was to reassure them of Christ’s coming to 
vindicate their cause (1: 5-12); to warn them 
against millennial fanaticism and emotionalism 
(2:1-2); to explain that Christ’s coming was 
not “ imminent,’ as certain events must first 
come to pass (2: 3-12); to exhort them to lead 
a quiet, sober and industrious life (3: 6-15). 

Contents. Second Thessalonians contains 
three chapters. The sections flow into each 
other with little marked separation. 


146 The Writings of the New Testament 


I. Introduction (1: 1-4). 

II. Commendation of their steadfastness and assurance 
of prayer for further progress (1: 5-I2). 

III. Instruction regarding Christ's second advent (2:1- 
12).—It will not be immediate, for the false Messiah must 
first appear and the power checking his evil work removed. 

IV. The Practical Part (3:15).—Renewed thanksgiving, 
a prayer for strength, request for their prayers, confidence 
in the Thess., rebuke of lazy fanatics. 

V. Conclusion (3: 16-18) —Benediction, autographic au- 
thentication. 


CHAPTER XX 


SECOND CHRONOLOGICAL GROUP OF 
PAUL SIEPISTERES 


I and II Cor., Romans, Galatians 


Literature: 
Consult bibliography of Chaps. 1 and 14. 
Godet, “The Epistles to the Corinthians.” 


First Corinthians 


Intervening time.—An interval of about four 
years (538-57) separates the second from the first 
group of Paul’s epistles. After writing I and II 
Thess., in 538 a. D., at Corinth, Paul returned to 
Antioch, making short stops at Ephesus, Czsarea 
and Jerusalem (Acts 18: 18-22). After “some 
time,” he left Antioch going on his third mission- 
ary tour (54-58), spending about three years at 
E\phesus. 

To Whom Written. ‘“ Unto the Church of 
God which is at Corinth” (1:2).—(1) The 
city was situated on the isthmus between the Ionian 
and the AXgean seas; a commercial center of great 
wealth, with a population of over half a million, 
drawn from many nations; the capital of Achaia; 
notorious for vice and corruption; famous as a 
seat of Greek learning; known for its pretensions 
to philosophy and literary culture and its fondness 
for polished and cultivated speech; famous for its 

147 


148 The Writings of the New Testament 


peculiar style of architecture and for its Isthmian 
games (I Cor. 9:24). The Church was founded 
by Paul during an eighteen months’ visit, about 
52-54 A. D., on his second missionary journey 
(Acts 18: 1-18). After Paul’s departure Apollos 
worked in Corinth~ (Acts 18: 27-19:1). The 
majority of the members were Gentiles (1 Cor. 
12:2); yet there were also Jews and proselytes. 
Most of the members were from the lower walks 
of life (1 Cor. 1: 26), though there were also a 
few wealthy and cultivated persons (Chloe, Aquila 
and Priscilla, Crispus, Erastus, Tertius ).—Ac- 
cording to the two epistles, the Church was large 
and very active; but characterized by Greek intel- 
lectual pride (1: 17-8: 4); restless partisanship 
and proneness to sensuality and Greek scepticism 
UiCoruao). 

When and Where Written. At Ephesus (16: 
8-10 ct, Acts 1920-26; 16:19. cf: Aets 18-26; 
and 15: 82); im 57 A. D., that is, on the eve of a 
second visit to Corinth (4: 17-19 and 16:5), 
which was made after his three years’ stay at 
Ephesus (54-57), as recorded in Acts 19: 8-10; 
20: 1-8, 81; allusions to the seasons (5: 7-8 and 
16: 6, 8) point to the period between Passover and 
Pentecost. 

Occasion. While at Ephesus (54-57), dis- 
turbing reports reached Paul concerning moral 
laxity among the members of the Church at Cor- 
inth. Paul wrote them a sharp letter, demanding 
withdrawal from licentious ‘‘ brothers.” ‘The fact, 


Second Group of Paul’s Epistles 149 


subject and spirit of such a letter is alluded to in 
I Cor. 5: 9, and the passage in II Cor. 6:14-7:1 
may be a fragment of it, because the subject of 
this passage would fit the description, while it does 
not fit into its present context. This letter did not 
improve conditions at Corinth. Later three depu- 
ties from Corinth arrived at Ephesus (16: 17), 
delivering a letter from the Corinthian Church 
(7: 1), asking Paul questions on marriage, meat 
offered to idols, the use of spiritual gifts, the col- 
lection for Jerusalem, etc. In addition, visitors 
from Chloe (1:11) brought Paul news about 
party divisions, gross immorality, litigation, in- 
decorous conduct by some women, selfish conduct 
at the agape and the denial of the resurrection 
(Chaps. 1, 2, 5, 6, 11, 15).—-In answer to these 
reports, Paul wrote our I Corinthians, carried 
probably by the delegation. He also sent Timothy 
to straighten out difficulties (4: 17; 16: 10; Acts 
19: 22). 

The object of this great letter was to answer 
their questions and to emphasize the true nature of 
the Gospel, the function of the Christian minister, 
the need of purity in the Church, etc. 

The value of I and II Corinthians is great. 
First they are rich treasures of information con- 
cerning the practical side of congregational life,and 
of the real conditions of the Apostolic churches. 
They set the Apostle vividly before us as a teacher 
and governor, confronted with the dangers and 
perplexities, the errors and corruptions of the 


150 The Writings of the New Testament 


times. Here we witness the earliest conflict of 
Christianity with the culture and the vices of the 
ancient classical world. We get an insight into 
the principles which regulated Paul’s acceptance or 
rejection of the customs of that vast fabric of 
heathen society, called “the world.” Wecan trace 
the mode in which he combatted the false pride, 
the false philosophy, the false liberty of a declining 
age. 

In form, First Corinthians is orderly and 
logical, taking up one point after another in reg- 
ular succession ; in style it is more simple and direct 
than most of Paul’s letters, rising at times into 
the sublimest eloquence, as in I Corinthians 13. 

Contents. I Corinthians contains 16 chap- 
ters. 


I. Epistolary Introduction (1: 1-9)—Address and greet- 
ing.— Thanksgiving and commendation. 

II. Four defects in the Church at Corinth (1: 10-6: 20). 

A. Party-Spirit (1:10-4:21). The two principal reasons 
for your dissensions are: 

(a) Your misconception of the true nature of the Gospel, 
regarding it as a system of philosophy (1: 18-3: 4). 

(b) Growing out of this, your wrong view of the Chris- 
tian ministry (3: 5-4: 21). 

B. Second defect: neglect of Church discipline (5:1- 
13).—An exceptionally flagrant case of immorality. 

C. Third defect: litigation before pagan courts (6: 1-11). 

D. Fourth defect: Defence of fornication (6: 12-20). 

Ill. Reply to questions asked by, the Corinthians in their 
letter to Paul Ge Gop i tt 

On marriage and its problems (Chap. 7). 

B. The proper attitude toward food omered to idols 
(8: 1-11:1). 

8: 1-13.—General principles—Not knowledge of the non- 
existence of pagan gods, but love to the weak must settle 
these questions.— 


Second Group of Paul’s Epistles 151 


9: 1-27.—The principle of forbearance illustrated by Paul’s 
example. 

10: 1-13.—The principle of self-denial enforced by the 
example of the fathers. 

10: 14-11: 1.—Avoid sacrificial feasts, because it means 
communion with the demons (14-24); do not offend the 
weak brother by buying and eating idol-meat. 

IV. Disorders in connection with public worship (11: 2- 
14:40). 

I1:2-16.—The veiling of women. 

11: 17-34.—Selfishness displayed at the agape and the 
Lord’s Supper. 

V. Spiritual gifts and their right use (12: 1-14: 40). 

12: 1-31.—The spiritual gifts are various in their mani- 
festations, but they have one source—-God’s Spirit, and one 
purpose, serving the whole Church. 

13: 1-13.—The one indispensable gift is love. All other 
gifts are valueless without it. 

14: I-40——Comparative value of the two gifts of prophesy- 
ing and speaking with tongues. 

. I. Reply to questions concerning the resurrection (Chap. 
15). ‘ 

1—The resurrection of Christ is an essential article of the 
Gospel (15: I-11). 

Tie Christ is risen, all dead in Christ will rise (15: 12- 
34). 

3—The nature of the resurrection body (15: 35-58). 

VII. Conclusion (Chap. 16). 


Second Corinthians 


Interval Between First and Second Co- 
rinthians. The following movements of Paul 
are based partly on recorded facts and partly on 
inferences or conjectures. Some time after send- 
ing our First Corinthians, unfavorable reports 
reached Paul from Corinth, probably through 
Timothy on his return, which induced Paul to make 
a flying visit from Ephesus to Corinth on which 
occasion he may have personally excommunicated 
the incestuous person, denounced in I Cor. 5: 1-6. 


152 The Writings of the New Testament 


Such a visit is clearly implied in II Cor. 12: 14, 
21 and 13: 1-2, but not recorded in Acts. After 
his return to Ephesus, Paul learned that the Corin- 
thians had refused to carry out his arrangements, 
and that the Judaizers were very active against him. 
Therefore, Paul wrote them a very severe letter, 
which is supposed to be Chaps. 10-13 of our Sec- 
ond Corinthians, and also sent Titus to Corinth. 
After this Paul left Ephesus for Troas (II Cor. 
1: 8-10; 2:12, 18), Macedonia and _ probably 
Illyricum, waiting for Titus to return. At last 
Titus meets Paul in Macedonia (II Cor. 7: 6, 13) 
with good reports about conditions at Corinth. 
Then Paul writes another very conciliatory letter, 
consisting of Chaps. 1-9 of our Second Corin- 
thians, which Titus carried back. Soon thereafter, 
Paul himself goes to Corinth for the three months’ 
visit, recorded in Acts 20: 2-38, during which he 
wrote Romans and Galatians. 


Note—The “two or three letter theory” of our Second 
Corinthians is held by many scholars, (1) because they 
regard the passage IT Cor. 6: 14-7: I as an interpolation con- 
sisting of a fragment of Paul’s real “ first” letter to the 
Corinthians, since its subject and tone would suit such a 
letter as alluded to in I Cor. 5:9, while it does not fit the 
context in its present place—(2) because Chaps. 10-13 of II 
Cor., as to tone and subjects, form an entire contrast to 
Chaps. 1-9.—(3) Scholars believing that our II Cor. was 
written exactly as it stands, explain the sudden change at 
10:1, by supposing that its first part, Chaps. 1-9, was ad- 
dressed to the loyal part and the second, Chaps. 10-13, to 
the opposing faction; or that while he was writing under 
the impression of the good reports by Titus, new distressing 
reports from Corinth reached him, which induced him to 
change tone and subject. (This would imply that Titus had 
been deceived, or that the old feuds had broken out again.) 


Second Group of Paul’s Epistles 158 


—These critical views are quite unimportant for the study 
of the material for practical, devotional and theological pur- 
poses. 


To Whom Written. ‘‘ Unto the Church of 
God which is at Corinth, with all the saints which 
are in the whole of Achaia” (1: 1), implying that 
Churches existed also outside of the city (Rom. 
Le)". 

Where and When Written. Considered as 
one letter, IJ Corinthians was written in Mace- 
donia, probably at Thessalonica or Philippi, in 57 
A. D., a few months after our I Cor., as Paul’s 
movements after leaving Ephesus imply. 

Contents. IT Cor. in its present form contains 
13 chapters. It is the least orderly (due perhaps 
to its composite character), but the most autobi- 
ographical and interesting of Paul’s letters. Five 
general divisions stand out quite clearly. 

I. Epistolary introduction.—1 : 1-16.—Salutation, Thanks- 
giving for divine comfort in afflictions, 

II. Affectionate review of Paul’s recent relations with 
the Corinthians. 1:1-7:16.—Defence against the charge of 
vacillation; the glory of the Apostolic office (3: 1-6: 10); 
appeal to treat him with affection and candor (6: 11-7:4); 
Mission of Titus (7: 5-16). 

Ill, Directions concerning the collection for the poor 
Christians at Jerusalem. Chaps. 8 and 9. 

IV. Paul’s defence of his Apostolic authority. 10: 1-13: 
10.—The field of his mission, reply to the charge of weak- 
ness, his embarrassment at having to compare himself with 
others, about self-maintenance, his visions, infirmities and 
approaching visit. 

V. Conclusion. 13:11-14—Greeting and the N. T. 
benediction. 


154 The Writings of the New Testament 
The Epistle to the Romans 


Literature: 

Consult the literature in Chaps. 1 and 14 on the various 
topics regarding this great epistle. 

Godet, “ Commentary on Romans,” (2 vol). 

Hodge, Ch., “ Commentary on Romans.” 

Zahn, “ Kommentar des Romerbriets.” 

Barth, Karl, “ Der Romerbrief.” 

Feine, ‘‘ Der Romerbrief.” 

Interval. Soon after writing II Cor., Paul 
arrived at Corinth, for a three months’ visit (Acts 
20: 1-3), during which he straightened out diffi- 
culties, assembled the Committee to carry the col- 
lection to Jerusalem (I Cor. 16: 1-2; II Cor., 
Chaps. 8 and 9), perfected plans for future work, 
and wrote Romans and Galatians. 

To Whom Written. “To all that are in 
Rome, beloved of God, called to be saints” (1: 
1-2).—(1) The city in Italy on the Tiber, founded 
754 B. C., was the capital of the Roman empire, 
Nero being on the throne; the home of poets, 
orators, philosophers and artists. Among its cos- 
mopolitan population were 30,000 Jews who as a 
race were despised by the Romans (Ovid, Juvenal, 
Tacitus). Under Claudius (41-54), they were 
expelled (Acts 18: 2, and Suetonius, Vita Claudii: 
“Impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantes,” be- 
cause under the instigation of Chrestus they con- 
stantly raised disturbances).—(2) The origin of 
the Church is unknown. Neither Paul is the 
founder, for he had not seen Rome before writing 
his letter (1: 8-11), nor Peter (15:20). It 
probably was planted by “the sojourners from 


Second Group of Paul’s Epistles 155 


Rome” at Pentecost (Acts 2:10) and by Chris- 
tian travellers from Paul’s congregations, as Chap. 
16 seems to suggest. Rom. 1:8 and 16:7 imply 
that the Church had existed for a long time. But 
see Acts 28: 17.—(38) The majority of the mem- 
bers seem to have been Gentiles (1:5, 6, 138-15; 
Iimelo—p4 £5015, 16), while?) 173) 7513 16: 7 
point to a Jewish minority.—(4) The prevailing 
type of Roman Christianity was, therefore, “ Gen- 
tile-Christian,” as appears also from Chap. 14, 
where the “strong” brethren are exhorted to bear 
with the “ weak” brethren, advocating the Jewish 
type-—(5) While 1: 7,8 and 15: 14 suggest favor- 
able spiritual conditions, the existence of “ weak- 
ness,” disagreements and lack of missionary zeal 
may be inferred from Chap. 14 and Phil. 1: 14— 
18.—(6) The fact that no Church officers are men- 
tioned, nor the word “ Church” used, as well as 
the remark in Acts 28: 15 has led some scholars to 
suppose that there was no formally organized 
Church in Rome, but merely unorganized groups 
of believers, meeting in the synagogue or in private 
houses (16: 5). 

When and Where Written. At Corinth, 
during Paul’s second recorded visit, early in 58, as 
appears from 15: 22-26, viewed in the light of 
Actsy20:1-3- 24-17-19: 1 Cor./16: 1-4: 1F Cor. 
8: 1-4; 9: 1-2. 

Integrity. While Chaps. 15 and 16 are held 
to be of undoubted Pauline origin, many suppose 
that they were not in their present form a part 


156 The Writings of the New Testament 


of the original copy of Romans, for the following 
reasons:—(1) In Chap. 16, a great number of 
people are greeted in a Church which Paul had 
never visited, some of the names, moreover, point- 
ing to Ephesus (16: 3 cf. I Cor. 16: 19 and Acts 
18: 18, 26; II Tim, 4: 19; also Rom. 16: 5).—(2) 
Romans has three endings (15: 83; 16:20; 16: 
27).—(38) The final doxology (16: 25-27) ap- 
pears in various places in the different Greek 
manuscripts. (See note in American Standard 
Bible, to 14:23 and 16:25.) Solutton:—(1) 
Chap. 16 is a fragment of a Pauline letter to the 
Ephesians, the rest of which is lost ;—-(2) Paul had 
copies of Romans made for several Churches, each 
with a different ending to suit each Church. A 
later copyist pieced the different endings together ; 
—(3) Romans was written exactly as we have it; 
the different endings mark postscripts, and the peo- 
ple mentioned in Chap. 16 were travellers from 
Churches in the East. 

Occasion. ‘To prepare the Romans for his 
long contemplated visit (1:18; 15:9, 23; Acts 
TO cue Lys 

Purpose. What determined the rich con- 
tents of this great letter? Various views:—(1) 
As Paul intended to make Rome the center of more 
aggressive evangelization in the west, he thought it 
wise to acquaint the Roman Christians with his 
type of the Gospel;—(2) To give the Romans a 
truer conception of the Gospel, as he knew them 
to be in danger of regarding Christianity as a new 


Second Group of Paul’s Epistles 157 


law, just as the Corinthians misconceived it as a 
new philosophy.—(8) A defense of Paul’s preach- 
ing to the Gentiles (15: 16), and to show them the 
applicability of the Gospel to all nations;—(4) A 
connected statement of Paul’s peculiar system:— 
(5) A polemic against the Judaizers. 

Value and Importance. Romans has ever 
been regarded as Paul’s masterpiece. Luther calls 
it “ truly the chief part of the N. T., and the purest 
Gospel.’”’—Calvin: ‘‘ It opens the door to all treas- 
ures in the Scriptures.’——-Zwingli learned it by 
heart in Greek.—Romans has exerted a tremendous 
influence on the development of Christian thought 
in all ages.—It is usually regarded as Paul’s text- 
book on his peculiar type and system of theology. 
Its chief divisions have been adopted by the earliest 
text-books on Protestant theology, as e. g., Me- 
lanchthon’s “‘ Loci Communes” and the “ Heidel- 
berg Catechism.” 

Contents. Romans comprises sixteen chap- 
ters. In form, the letter is strictly systematic, an- 
nouncing and carrying through a definite theme 
from beginning to end. 


I. Epistolary Introduction (1: 1-17): 
1. Address and greeting (1-7). 
2. Thanksgiving and commendation (8-15). 
3. Theme: Righteousness from God on the sole con- 
dition of faith (16-17). 

Il. The Necessity of a righteousness by faith, proved by 
the universal sinfulness of mankind which makes sal- 
vation by man’s own efforts impossible (1: 18-3: 20): 
1. Proved from history and present experience in the 

case of the Gentiles (1: 18-32). 


158 The Writings of the New Testament 


3. 


a. Their guilt (18-23). 

b. The penalty (24-32). 

Proved by history and experience in the case of 
the Jews (2: 1-3:8). 

a, Details of proof (2: 1-16). 

b. Jewish blood will not exempt them (2: 17-24). 
c. Circumcision is no protection (2: 25-29). 

d. Jewish privileges are still important (3: 1-4). 
e. Paul’s defénce of his doctrine (3: 5-8). 

Proved from Scripture that Jews and Gentiles are 
steeped in sin and cannot save themselves (3:9- 


20). 
Ill. The Nature of Faith-Righteousness—its subjective 
and objective basis (3: 21-31): 


I. 


2 


The subjective condition is man’s sincere trust in 
Christ (3: 21-22). 

The objective condition is the ransom paid by 
Christ through his sacrificial atoning death (3: 23- 
25)% 

Two consequences; boasting is excluded; Jews and 


Gentiles are accepted on the same conditions (3: 
26-31). 


IV. The Scripturalness of Faith-Righteousness, proved by 
the decisive case of Abraham (Chapter 4): 


i; 
2. 


<f 
4. 
5. 


Abraham was declared righteous by faith (1-5). 
David bears testimony to the same truth (6-8). 
Abraham was justified by faith only, before cir- 
cumcision (Q-I2). 

His justification rested on the old promise, not on 
the law (13-16). 

Abraham’s faith is a type of our faith. Justifica- 
tion still is the result of faith (17-25). 


V. Blessed results of Faith-Righteousness (Chaps. 5-8): 
A. Religious results (Chap. 5). 


1% 


Upon the individual (5: 1-11). 

a. Immediate effects—peace, state of grace, comfort 
in tribulation (5: 1-6). 

b, Future effects—perfect salvation guaranteed by 
the present love of God for his enemies (5: 7— 


I). 
Upon the whole human race; Christ’s salvation will 
more than compensate mankind’s loss through 
Adam (5: 12-21). 


B. Moral results—the sanctifying influence of faith— 


righteousness on the believer's moral character 
(Chaps. 6, 7, 8). 


Second Group of Paul’s Epistles 159 


True faith kills the principle of sin in the believer 
by bringiag him into a vital mystical union with 
Christ, as symbolized by baptism (6: 1-14). 

True faith does not mean license to sin, but a 
decisive change of masters involving new moral 
obligation (6: 15-23). 

True faith means death to the old husband (the 
law) and a new marriage to Christ, and this union 
will bring forth fruits of righteousness from a new 
disposition and love (7 1-6). 

True faith makes it possible for the believer to 
carry. out the demands of God’s holy law by 
Christ’s redemption (7: 7-25). 

True faith infuses into the heart of the believer a 
new, powerful principle of morality—the work of 
the Holy Spirit (Chap. 8). 


VI. The bearing of fatth-righteousness on Israel’s re- 
jection (Chaps. 9, 10, II): 
L. The justice of Israel’s rejection (9: 1-20). 


I. 


2. 


It pains me that in spite of Israel’s great privileges, 
the people as a whole is rejected (9: 1-5). 

But Israel’s rejection is not in conflict with God’s 
justice, for the promises of God were given only to 
a selection—an ideal Israel, as the Scripture shows 
(9: 6-13). 

This dealing of God is in accordance with Scripture 
which claims for God full sovereignty to bestow 
mercy (Exodus 33:9), and to reject (Exodus 9: 
12-9: 14-18). 

If you object that if God’s will is irresistible, Israel 
cannot be held responsible, my answer is: How 
dare the creature quibble and criticize his creator? 
(9: 19-21). 

Remember that Israel’s rejection had a merciful 
motive—it leads to the saving of many Gentiles, as 
was foretold by Amos and Isaiah (9: 22-29). 


II. The real cause of Israel’s rejection is their unbelief 


(9: 


I, 
2. 


iil. Th 
I. 


30-10: 21). 

It is not at all the exercise of these divine pre- 
rogatives that caused Israel’s downfall but their 
persistent unbelief (9: 30-33). 

Israel’s determined obstinacy, though the faith plan 
is much easier than the law-plan (10: 1-15). 
Some objections answered (10: 16-21). 


é final salvation of Israel (Chap. 11). 


Israel’s rejection is only partial (11: 1-10). 


160 The Writings of the New Testament 


2. Israel’s rejection is only temporary and opened 
the way to the salvation of many Gentiles (11: 11- 
16). 

3. Warning to the Gentiles and assurance of Israel’s 
final salvation (11: 17-32). 

Sublime conclusion of the whole part (11: 33-36). 
VII. “P he Ethical Part (Chaps. 12: 1-15: 13): 

Paul answers the question as to how this new faith- 
plan, especially the new principle of holiness, affects 
the actual life of the believers. 

I. The general part (12: 1-13:14). 

1. The Christian as an individual (12: 1-2). 

2. The Christian as a member of the church (12: 3-8). 

3. The Christian as a member of society (12: 9-21). 

4. The Christian as a citizen (13: I-7). 

. Motives of Christian morality (13: 8-14). 
II. Special Part (14: I-15: 13). 

Christian duties with respect to existing scruples about 
religious observances. 

I. Wenning against giving offense to the weak (14: 1- 
12), 

2. Warning against despising forbearance to the weak 
(14: 14-23). 

3. Reciprocal edification in self-denial (15: 1-4). 

4. Admonition to harmony between Jew and Gentile 


15: 5-13). 
VIII. The Epistolary Conclusion (15: 14-16: 27). 


The Epistle to the Galatians 


Interval. Galatians was written during Paul’s 
second recorded three months’ visit at Corinth 
(Acts 20: 1-3), either before or after Romans, 
both of which treat of the same general subject— 
justification by faith. 

To Whom Written. ‘“ Unto the Churches of 
Galatia” (1: 1).—According to the North Gala- 
tian theory, these churches were located in that 
strip of the Roman province of Galatia where sev- 
eral tribes from Gaul had settled in the third cen- 
tury B. Cc. They were at unidentified places, 


Second Group of Paul’s Epistles 161 


founded on Paul’s second missionary journey, 
about 51 a. D. (Acts 16:6) and visited on the 
third missionary tour, about 54 a. p. (Acts 18: 22, 
23).—According to the South Galatian theory, the 
Galatian Churches are the ones founded on Paul’s 
first missionary tour, 46-49 a. D., in Antioch of 
Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra and Derbe (Acts 13: 14— 
14: 24), which territory was a part of the newly 
formed and enlarged Roman province Galatia.— 
The letter implies that the Churches were almost 
entirely composed of heathen converts. 

When and Where Written. Though Paul’s 
personality stands out prominently in this letter, it 
contains no allusions which would enable us to set 
definitely the time and place of writing.—(1) On 
the South Galatian theory, it has been placed as 
early as 51, sent from Antioch (of course after 
the Jerusalem Council, mentioned in Gal. 2: 1-12), 
the two visits implied in Gal. 4: 13 being those of 
Acts Chaps. 13 and 14 and 16:6; or it may be 
postponed to 54, from Ephesus, in which case ac- 
cording to Acts 18: 23, three visits preceded the 
letter.—(2) On the North Galatian theory it can- 
not have been written before the third missionary 
journey (54-58 a. p.), when the second visit to 
Galatia was made (Acts 18: 23), and its writing 
may be placed at Ephesus, in 54, or at Corinth, in 
58. As its mature theology, style and thought are 
closely related to Romans, the year 58 and Corinth 
have been mostly favored. 

Occasion. Judaizing Christians had suc- 


162 The Writings of the New Testament 


ceeded in persuading the Galatians to accept cir- 
cumcision and the Mosaic law for the perfecting 
of their Christianity (4:21; 5:2). In order to 
succeed, these Judaizers denied that Paul was a 
true Apostle with authority (1:12; 4:17). The 
letter refers repeatedly to this twofold effort (1: 9; 
Ant G ei binus). 

The main object of Galatians is, therefore, to 
counteract the Judaizing process—(1) By a bold 
assertion of his apostleship as directly conferred 
upon him by Christ (1: 11-2: 21), and (2) by a 
clear and forceful exposition and demonstration of 
his type of the Gospel-(Chaps. 3 and 4). 

Value and Importance. Galatians is the 
Christian’s Declaration of Independence from the 
law principle of salvation and has served to eman- 
cipate millions of Christians from the various 
forms of externalism which from time to time 
have endangered the freedom and spirituality of 
the Gospel. It was Luther’s favorite epistle which 
provided to him much inspiration in his conflict 
with Romanism. 

Contents. Galatians comprises six chapters, 
logically arranged in six chief sections. 


I. Epistolary Introduction (1: 1-10): 

1: 1-5.—Greetings, but without the usual thanksgiving and 
commendation. 

1:6-10.—Occasion of the letter, the falling away of the 
Galatians from the one true Gospel of free salvation. 

IT. Paul’s defence of his Apostolic authority and the type 
of his Gospel, by showing that his conversion and his gospel 
were directly traceable to God, for he had not met the 


Second Group of Paul’s Epistles 163 


Apostles until long after his conversion and then they un- 
reservedly recognized his equal Apostleship. 

UI, Justification ts by faith and not through works. 
Paul sustains this thesis by seven arguments and by forceful 
illustrations (Chaps. 3 and 4). 

IV. Application of the doctrine of the freedom from the 
law. Hold fast to Christian liberty. But remember that 
Christian liberty is not license, but freedom to love and 
serve (5:2-0:10). 

V. Conclusion. 6:11-18.—A very touching autograph in 
large letters. 


CHAPTER XXI 


THIRD CHRONOLOGICAL GROUP OF 
PAUL'S *EPISTLES 


Colossians, Philemon, Ephesians, and Philippians 


Literature: 
Consult the bibliography in Chaps. 1 and 14. 


Interval. A space of about four years inter- 
venes between the second and the third groups of 
Paul’s epistles (58-63), a period of disappoint- 
ment, derangement of plans, imprisonment, and 
suffering, but also of blessings. After writing 
Romans and Galatians, in 58, Paul left Corinth for 
Jerusalem, travelling by way of Macedonia, 
Philippi, Troas, Assos, Miletus, Tyre, Ceesarea. In 
Jerusalem Paul delivered the collection to James, 
was arrested in the Temple, imprisoned for about 
six years:—at Jerusalem, Czesarea, on board ship, 
at Melita and in Rome (Acts 21: 17-28: 31). 

When and Where Written. Internal evi- 
dence shows that all four letters were written from 
a prison—hence called “‘ Imprisonment Epistles ”— 
(Col. 4: 3, 18; Philemon 9:13; Eph. 3:1; 4:1; 
Phil. 1: 7, 18, 14, 17).—It is very generally held 
that these passages refer to Paul’s Roman imprison- 
ment recorded in Acts 28: 16-31, the time being 
about 61-—64.—The chronological order of the let- 

‘ 164 


Third Group of Paul’s Epistles 165 


ters within the group is usually supposed to be the 
one we follow here, although some scholars place 
Philippians first. 


Colossians 


To Whom Written. “To the saints and 
faithful brethren in Christ which are at Colossz ” 
(1: 1).—(1) The city was an insignificant Phryg- 
ian town in the province of Asia.—(2) From 
Col. 1: 4, 7, 9; 2:1 it is clear that Paul was not 
the direct founder of this Church, though he may 
have inspired it while at Ephesus (54-57), through 
Epaphras (1: 7, 8; 4: 12, 18). 

Occasion. ‘The visit and report of Epaphras 
and Paul’s desire to write to Philemon, at Colossz, 
regarding Onesimus, induced him to write this 
epistle and send both to their destination through 
Tychicus (Col. 4: 7-9; Acts 20: 4; II Tim. 4: 12). 

The object of the letter is to combat false 
teachings and wrong practices concerning circum- 
cision, mysticism, salvation through asceticism, 
worship of angels, all of which errors had the 
tendency to deny the supremacy and universal 
mediatorship of Christ. 

Contents. Colossians has four chapters. 


I. Introduction. 1: 1-13.—Greetings, thanksgiving, prayer 
for Christian progress. 
he preéminence of Christ, as to his person, in the 
world and in the Church.—1: 15-20. 
III. Paul’s efforts on behalf of his readers. 1: 24-2: 7.— 
His labors, sufferings and anxiety for them. 
IV. A warning against current errors. 2: 8-23.—Against 


166 The Writings of the New Testament 


incipient gnosticism, Jewish legalism, false humility and 
angel-worship, unspiritual asceticism. 

V. Christian standards of Morality.—3: 1-4: 6. 

VI. Conclusion. 4: 7-18. 


Letter to Philemon 


To Whom Written. “To Philemon our be- 
loved, and fellow-worker.”’—Col. 4:9; 17 and 
Philemon 2—7 imply that this man was a resident 
of Colosse, for Onesimus is said to be of that 
place. The intimate tone of the letter suggests that 
Paul knew Philemon personally and that he was a 
very active Christian. — 

Occasion. A slave of Philemon, Onesimus, 
had defaulted, run away to Rome and was con- 
verted by Paul, who sends him back accompanied 
by Tychicus. The object of this courteous, yet 
very frank letter is to ask the master to receive 
Onesimus kindly and to treat him in future not as 
a slave but as a brother in Christ—This letter has 
been used as propaganda for and against slavery. 
Paul’s insistence on the brotherhood of man cuts 
the nerve of slavery of every kind. 

Contents. Philemon contains only one chap- 
ter and is the only extant private letter by Paul. 

1-3 Name of writer, address and salutation. 

4-7 Thanksgiving for Philemon’s splendid Christian 
character. 

8-20 Paul’s plea that Philemon would receive back his 


former slave Onesimus and treat him as a Christian. 
21-25 Request for a lodging, salutation, benediction. 


The Epistle to the Ephesians 
To Whom Written. According to the usual 


Third Group of Paul’s Epistles 167 


text: “ To the saints that are at Ephesus” (1: 1). 
—The city was the capital of the province of Asia, 
rich in commerce and industry and the chief seat of 
the worship of Diana (Artemis), her famous tem- 
ple containing the miraculous image of the goddess 
(Acts 19: 23).—The Church was founded by Paul 
on his third missionary journey (54-57). Read 
Pets. Chapr 19) 20217-8831 Cor 157/32; 1679; 
Rev. 2: 1-8.—The membership consisted mostly 
of Gentiles (2: 11-19; 3:4), with some Jews 
among them (Acts 18:19; 19: 8).—Paul’s suc- 
cess was so great in and around Ephesus (Rev. 
Chaps. 2 and 3), that heathenism was shaken to its 
foundation. ‘The Labor Unions opposed any fur- 
ther spread of the Gospel (Acts 19: 23-41), so 
that Paul had to leave. 

The Theory of a Circular Letter. It is now 
generally agreed that this epistle was not addressed 
to the Church at Ephesus exclusively, but was in 
the nature of a circular letter for all the Churches 
of proconsular Asia, Ephesus included. In favor 
of this supposition are the facts:—(1) that the 
words “in Ephesus” (1:1) are wanting in two 
of our oldest Greek manuscripts (Aleph and B) ;— 
(2) no personal salutations are found in the epistle 
though Paul must have formed many personal 
friendships during his long visit at Ephesus (Acts 
20: 17-38) ;—(8) Eph. 1: 15-19; 3: 1-4 imply 
that the readers were strangers to Paul and re- - 
quired proof of his apostleship, and 4: 17-22, that 
they had never received adequate Christian instruc- 


168 The Writings of the New Testament 


tion ;—-(4) that Marcion in his canon connects this 
letter with Laodicea;—(5) tone and general sub- 
ject, “Christian Union and the supremacy of 
Christ’ would fit a circular letter. 

It may be supposed that Tychicus (Eph. 6: 21- 
22) left copies with a blank for the name of the 
various Churches to be filled in, at Laodicea (with 
directions to pass it on to Colosse, Col. 4: 16), 
at Ephesus and at other places. Ephesus being 
the leading Church of the district, their copy with 
the name of the city became the source of many 
later copies to Churches in other parts of the 
world. 

The remarkable similarity of Ephesians with 
Colossians—78 of its 155 verses resembling 
thoughts and expressions contained in Colossians— 
is best explained by the fact that both have been 
written at Rome about the same time. 

Contents. Ephesians contains six chapters. 


I. Introduction. 1:1-23.—Greeting, thanksgiving, prayer 
for the readers. 

II. The spiritual history of the Ephesians (Chap. 2). 

Ill. Paul’s second prayer for fuller knowledge (3: I-21). 

IV. ‘The believer’s religious conduct (Chap. 4). 

V. Regeneration of social relations (5: 1-6:9). 

VI. The Christian warfare. 6:10-20—-The army, the 
weapons, the victory. 

VII. Conclusion (6: 21-24). 


The Epistle to the Philippians 
To Whom Written. “To the saints in 
Christ Jesus which are at Philippi, with the bishops 
and deacons” (1:1).—The city was a Roman 


Third Group of Paul’s Epistles 169 


colony in Macedonia enjoying Roman citizenship. 
—The founding of the Church on Paul’s second 
missionary journey (51-54) is graphically de- 
scribed in Acts 16: 11-40.—Most of the members 
were Greek and Roman Gentiles, comparatively 
few Jews being in the place, as proved by the 
absence of a synagogue and any Hebrew names in 
the list of converts——The Church excelled all 
others in its attachment and generosity to Paul 
(Phil. 4: 10-18).—Two subsequent visits of Paul 
are recorded in Acts 20: 2, 6. 

When Written. About 63 or 64, as the last 
of the four “prison epistles,” for 1: 12-14, 25; 
2: 20, 23, 24 imply that he had been in prison for 
a long time and that he believed the end of his two 
years’ confinement to be near. 

Occasion and Object. Epaphroditus of Phi- 
lippi, who had brought him a contribution from that 
Church, had fallen sick and was eager to return 
home (2:26). Paul sends this letter through him, 
giving a very informing account of conditions of 
the Roman Church and his own work, success and 
hopes of release (1: 12-30) and expressing his 
warm-hearted love and joy for their gifts and 
loyalty (4: 10-20). 

Contents. Philippians contains four chapters. 
2: 5-11 is the locus classicus for Paul’s Chris- 
tology. 


J. Introduction. 1: 1-11, Salutation, thanksgiving, prayer 
for their Christian perfection. 
I. Paul’s circumstances and feelings at Rome (1: 12-26), 


170 The Writings of the New Testament 


ee Exhortations to various Christian virtues (1; 27- 
2:18). 

IV. Urgent warning against the Judaizers, perfectionism 
and immorality (3: 1-4:1). 

V. Renewed and final exhortations (4: 2-9). 

VI. Recognition of their repeated liberality toward him 
(4: 10-20). 

VII. Salutations and benediction (4: 21-23). 


CHAPTER XXII 


FOURTH CHRONOLOGICAL GROUP OF 
RAUL Ste PIS DUES 


I Timothy, Titus, II Timothy 


Literature: 
Consult the bibliography in Chaps. 1 and 14. 
Burton, “Records and Letters of the Apostolic Age,” p. 


224. 


Interval. With the statement of Acts 28: 30- 
31 ends the N. T. record of Paul’s life. Regarding 
its closing period we are dependent on inferences 
or conjectures based on the Imprisonment and Pas- 
toral epistles, or on ancient Church traditions with 
results varying according to the interpretation put 
on these indefinite sources by different scholars, as 
will be seen immediately. 

Their Common Name. These three letters 
are known as “ Pastoral Epistles,” because they 
were written to Timothy and Titus in their official 
pastoral capacity and relate chiefly to the qualifica- 
tions and duties of office-bearers entrusted with the 
pastoral care of the Church. 

Who Wrote Them. These letters claim to 
be written by ‘“‘ Paul, an apostle of Christ Jesus ”’ 
(I and II Tim. 1:1), or by “ Paul, a servant of 
God, and an apostle of Jesus Christ’ (Titus 1:1). 

171 


172 The Writings of the New Testament 


—This claim is strongly favored by external evi- 
dence—Clement of Rome, Polycarp, Tertullian, 
Irenzeus, Muratorian canon, Eusebius, etc.—as well 
as by internal proofs,—Pauline thought and spirit 
—and is therefore defended by Zahn and by most 
of the English critics. 

Objections. Nevertheless, there is a very 
widespread rejection of these epistles by modern 
scholars of great repute, such as Schleiermacher, 
Eichhorn, DeWette, Baur, Pfleiderer, Jiilicher, and 
others, who regard them either as entire forgeries, 
or as writings constructed from Pauline fragments 
by unknown persons after Paul’s death. These 
critics base their objection chiefly on the historical 
difficulty, that no place can be found in the re- 
corded life of Paul into which his movements im- 
plied in these epistles would naturally fit. (Con- 
sider the places mentioned in the Pastoral Epis- 
tles.)—These objections are entirely obviated if 
we suppose them to have been written subsequently 
to the events narrated in Acts, namely, that in 64 
Paul was released from his first Roman imprison- 
ment; that he travelled to the places mentioned in 
the pastoral epistles, such as Ephesus (1 Tim. 
1:3); Miletus (II Tim. 4: 20); Troas, (II Tim. 
4:13) 5 Crete: (Tit! 1:5); Neapolis (Litioile 
etc.) ; that he wrote on this fourth missionary jour- 
ney, I Tim. and Titus; that he was arrested in 
Spain (Rom. 15: 24, 28), or at Rome; that in this 
second Roman imprisonment he wrote II Tim., and 
died a martyr’s death in 66 or 67.—Jn favor of this 


Fourth Group of Paul’s Epistles 173 


hypothesis is (1) his clearly expressed expecta- 
tion to be released, in Phil. 1: 25; 2: 24; Philemon 
22;—(2) the old tradition by Clement of Rome 
that before his death Paul “ went to the boundary 
of the West,” which can only refer to Spain. 


Note—Minor Objections to the Pauline Authorship.—(1) 
The author stresses his apostleship, which would have been 
unnecessary if written to his loyal co-workers (I Tim. 1:1; 

Tim. 1:1; Titus 1:2). Answer: These letters were in- 
tended for public reference—(2) Timothy is referred to as 
a “youth,” though he became a helper as early as 51 (I 
Tim. 4:12; II Tim. 2:22). He may have been young in his 
appearance and ways.——(3) Gnostic heresies are denounced 
which flourished in the 2nd and 3rd centuries (I Tim. 1:4; 
4:20). He has in mind incipient gnosticism, Essenic mysti- 
cism and allegorical interpretations of Jewish genealogy.— 
(4) the highly developed Church organization points to the 
and cent. (I Tim. 3:-1-13; Titus 1:5-9). But the “ bishop” 
is still identical with the elder, a congregational officer, with 
no hint of a monarchical diocesan bishop.—(5) Un-Pauline 
style as to smoothness and peculiar words. Novelty of 
topics, wider reading and practice as well as greater liberty 
allowed to the secretary may account for that—(6) These 
very difficulties speak for the Pauline authorship, for why 
should a forger manufacture difficulties for himself? 


First Timothy 


To Whom Written. ‘“ Unto Timothy my 
true child in faith” (1: 2).—Timothy was prob- 
ably converted on Paul’s first missionary journey, 
at Lystra (I Tim. 1:2); selected by Paul on his 
2nd missionary journey as his co-worker and or- 
dained by Paul and the elders (I Tim. 4: 14; II 
Tim. 1:6). He was Paul’s favorite (1 Cor. 16: 
10), with whom we find him constantly connected 
and used for delicate missions,—to Thessalonica, 
Corinth, Rome, etc. According to Heb. 13: 23 he 


174 The Writings of the New Testament 


suffered imprisonment, and according to tradition 
he died a martyr’s death as Bishop of Ephesus 
under Domitian or Nerva. 

Where and When Written. Probably from 
Macedonia, in 65. 

Occasion and Object. Paul left Ephesus 
with Timothy in charge, intending to return 
soon; but fearing delay, he writes some instruc- 
tions about his pastoral work (I Tim. 3:14-15). 

Contents. First Timothy has six chapters. 


I. Address and salutation (1: 1-2). 

II. Charge to Timothy to keep the Gospel pure (1: 3-11). 

III. This charge enforced by Paul’s example (1: 12-17). 

IV. Charge to Timothy to be loyal to the truth, sur- 
rounded as he was by these errors (1: 18-20). 

V. Directions concerning the worship of the Church 
(Chap. 2). 

VI. Personal, domestic and social qualifications of Church 
officers and their duties (3: 1-16). 

VII. Errors to be avoided and rebuked (Chap. 4). 

VIII. Rules for the administration of the Church (Chap. 


IX. Taare A of Christian principles to practical prob- 
lems (Chap. 
X. Cesena (8: 20-21). 


The Epistle to Titus 


To Whom Written. ‘To Titus my true 
child after a common faith ” (1: 1).—Titus was 
probably a convert of Paul at Antioch, of Gen- 
tile extraction (Gal. 2:3). He was with Paul at 
the Council in Jerusalem, on the third missionary 
journey, when Paul used him to straighten out 
difficulties at Corinth, and at Crete. According 


Fourth Group of Paul’s Epistles 175 


to tradition he was the bishop of Crete and died 
there. He is never mentioned in Acts. 

When and Where Written. About 65, either 
before or after I Tim., from Greece or Macedonia, 
as Paul expects to spend the winter at Nicopolis in 
Epirus (Greece). 

Occasion. To give instruction in matters of 
Church administration and to advise Titus to op- 
pose the invasion of mercenary Jewish teachers. 

Contents. This letter contains three chap- 
ters. 


I. Greeting (1: 1-4). 

II. The mission of Titus: to organize the churches in 
Crete; qualifications of the “elder-bishop” (1: 5-9). 

III. Charge to restrain current corruptions in life and 
doctrine (I: 10-16). 

IV. Rules of Christian conduct for various classes (2: I- 


V. Somer to rulers and courtesy towards all men 
RE), 
VI. Final directions and benediction (3: 8-15). 


Second Timothy 


To Whom Written. “To Timothy, my be- 
loved child ” (1: 2) at Ephesus. 

When and Where Written. Probably in 66 
or 67, from Paul’s second Roman imprisonment. 

Occasion and Object. Probably to acquaint 
Timothy why he failed to return to Ephesus (1 
Tim. 3: 14) ; to describe his present deplorable con- 
dition (1: 15; 2:9; 4: 10, 14, 16-18) ; to urge his 
visit and to ask other favors (II Tim. 9: 11, 12).— 
This is Paul’s swan song! (See 4: 6-8.) 


176 The Writings of the New Testament 


Contents. Second Timothy contains four 
chapters. 


I. Address, greetings and thanksgiving (1: 1-5). 

II. Appeal to use all gifts in God’s service; not to shrink 
from defending the Gospel (1: 6-18). 

III. Be diligent in the propagation of the truth and 
endure hardships (2: 1-13). 

IV. The Christian’s safeguards against false doctrine and 
life (2: 14-3: 17). 

V. Paul’s solemn final charge and requests (4: 1-18). 

Mer Conclusion: Paul’s last farewell and benediction (4: 
19-22). 


CHAPTER XXIII 
THE EPISTLE TO THE HEBREWS 


Literature: 
Consult the bibliography in Chaps. 1 and 14. 


Who Wrote It. It is an anonymous writing, 
the name “ of Paul the Apostle ” in the title of the 
Authorized version being a later addition.—In 
ancient times, the Eastern Church favored Paul as 
the author, while the Western Church was adverse 
to it. Modern critics have come to a negative 
conclusion,—that Paul was not the author, for the 
following reasons:—(1) the diction is polished and 
the sentences carefully constructed, while Paul’s 
style is rugged and often disjointed; (2) the 
absence of the usual opening of Paul’s letters; (3) 
the author acknowledges that he and his readers 
are indebted for the Gospel to “ them that heard ” 
the Lord (2:3), while Paul always vehemently 
repudiated for himself any such dependence (Gal. 
1: 11-17).—(4) The author invariably quotes 
from the LXX.—(5) As to theology, Paul re- 
gards the Old Testament chiefly as a system of 
law, while Hebrews stresses its cultus, regarding 
the entire Old covenant as a thing of shadows and 
symbols and therefore unprofitable (7: 28), while 
the Gospel brought the reality. 

177 


178 The Writings of the New Testament 


As a positive answer to the question of author- 
ship, the names of Luke, Barnabas, Clement of 
Rome, Priscilla have been discussed. Luther’s 
suggestion of Apollos has been greatly favored 
by modern critics, for the description of him in 
Acts 18: 24-28 would fit in with the internal char- 
acteristics of this letter. Apollos was in general 
sympathy with Paul’s system, yet with a certain 
independence as to method; he was an Alexandrian 
Hellenist in contact with Greek thought, an elo- 
quent man, mighty in the Scriptures, all of which 
is reflected in this letter, in its allegorical method 
and in about 22 passages resembling ideas of Philo 
(Adeney, 426). 

To Whom Written. ‘The title says: “ To the 
Hebrews ”; the whole tenor and the subject of the 
epistle imply that it was written for Jewish Chris- 
tians (1:1; 2:11, 16).—Various allusions show 
that it was addressed to some definite Church (5: 
11-12; 6: 9-10; 10: 832-34; 13: 1, 7, 19, 23), prob- 
ably that at Jerusalem, or in some other part of 
Palestine, for only here would be found Churches 
entirely composed of Jews. Moreover, it was in 
Palestine, near the splendor of the ancient sanctu- 
ary, where the temptation to relapse into Judaism 
and the exposure to persecution were strongest. 
If Palestine was its destination, it need not be as- 
sumed that it was originally written in Hebrew, 
for the letter bears unmistakable tokens of having 
been originally written in Greek, such as its nymer- 
ous plays on Greek words and the use of the LXX 


Epistle to the Hebrews 179 


in the quotations.—Other places suggested are 
Alexandria, Antioch, Ephesus, Rome. 

Where and When Written. Hebrews 13: 24, 
“ They of Italy salute you” points either to some 
city in Italy where the author was waiting for the 
liberation of Timothy (13: 23); or to a group of 
Italian Christians resident in the place from which 
he wrote.—The time may have been about 68, 
because the sacrificial system in the Temple was 
still going on (8:13; 10: 2-8, 26); for if Jeru- 
salem had been destroyed this fact would have 
been used as a strong argument for the transitory 
character of Judaism. 

Occasion. Persecution, a feeling of disap- 
pointment that their Messianic hopes had not been 
realized, and the strong fascination of the impres- 
sive Temple ritualism, all of which presented a 
constant danger to fall back into Judaism, to which 
some had actually succumbed (2:1). 

The Object of the Letter, therefore, was to 
check the beginnings of apostasy, to encourage and 
stimulate faith (3: 6, 14; 6: 1-8), by stressing the 
superiority of Christianity over Judaism, showing 
that the O. T. system in spite of all its pomp was 
only a shadow and was already abolished by the 
sacrificial death of Christ, and to urge them to live 
up to their privileges. 

Contents. The letter contains thirteen chap- 
ters and presents a compact unity of argument, sel- 
dom found in any other N. T. writing, giving it 


180 The Writings of the New Testament 


the character of a treatise. The subject is, The 
Superiority of Christianity to Judaism. 


A. The Doctrinal Part (1: 1-10: 18): 

I. Christ is superior to the prophets (1: 1-4). 

II. Christ is superior to the angels, as to name, dignity, 
homage, and rulership (1: 5-2:18). Proved by seven quota- 
tions from the Old ‘Testament. 

Interruption of the argument for the purpose of applying 
the foregoing:—Don’t drift away from such a superior 
revelation (2: 1-4). 

Resumption of the argument concerning Christ’s superior- 
ity over the angels (2: 5-18). 

III. Christ is superior to Moses (3: 1-6). 

Another interruption of the argument, containing a most 
serious warning against disloyalty to Christ (3:7-4:14). 

Skillful transition to the main argument—the High Priest- 
hood of Jesus (4: 14-16). 

Are) Christ superior to the Levitical priesthood (5: 1- 
10:18). 

1. Christ has all the essential qualifications of a true 
priest, sympathy and a divine call (5: 1-10). 

2. A third exhortatory interruption of the direct argu- 
ment. Reproof for dullness and warning against relapse 
(5:11-6:20). 

3. Christ is a Melchizedekean priest, superior to the 
Levitical priesthood—(1) as to personality (7: 1-25); (2) 
as to his ministry (8: I-10: 18). 

B. The Practical Part (10: 19-13) : 

1. Exhortations to remain loyal to this great high priest 
and his Church (10: 19-30). 

2. ‘The heroes of faith—Abel, Enoch, Noah; the Jewish 
patriarchs; Gideon, Samuel, David, the prophets; the Mac- 
cabeans (Chap. 11). 

3. Exhortations to follow these heroes and remain loyal 
(Chap. 12). 

4. Definite exhortations: concerning brotherly love, hos- 
pitality, prisoners, marriage, love of money, contentment, 
former ministers of the Church (13: I-21). 

C. Epistolary Conclusion.—Personal remarks, salutation, 
benediction (13: 22-25). 


CHAPTER XXIV 
THE SEVEN GENERAL EPISTLES 


Tue old designation “ General” or “ Catholic ” 
of the epistles of James, I and II Peter, Jude, I, IT 
and III John, is meant to denote their destination 
or their contents. This characterization is some- 
what loose, for it does not fit II and III John. 


The Epistle of James 


Literature: 

Consult the bibliography in Chaps. 1 and 14. 

Mayor, “ The Epistle of St. James.” 

Robertson, ‘“ Practical and Social Aspects of Christianity.” 

vi “Der Brief des Jakobus” (in ‘ Hand Kommen- 
tai”): 


Who Wrote It. “James, a servant of God 
and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (1:1). Of the 
three New Testament ‘“ James’,” this one is “ the 
Lord’s brother” (Gal. 1:19), the older of the 
four natural younger brothers of Jesus (Matt. 10: 
2-4). He was not one of the Twelve, for during 
Christ’s lifetime he “did not believe on him” 
(John 7: 3, 5). After the appearance to him of 
the Risen Christ (1, Cor. 15:.7)), he, joined the 
infant Church (Acts 1: 13), and later became one 
of its foremost leaders (Acts 12:17; 15: 13; 21: 
18; Gal. 2:9). In 62, he died a martyr’s death._— 

181 


182 The Writings of the New Testament 


In principle, he held to universal salvation by 
faith; but his peculiar type of the Gospel was 
Jewish and conservative, yet not Judaistic. 

To Whom Written. “To the twelve tribes 
which are of the dispersion” (1:1); that is, to 
Christians of Jewish extraction living outside of 
Palestine, with an occasional side-glance to his 
unbelieving countrymen (2: 1-6; 5: 1-6).—The 
moral and religious condition of the readers was 
low and their life was beset with all kinds of 
troubles (1: 2-4). 

Where and When Written. At Jerusalem, 
about 45-50, because of the absence of any allu- 
sions to the sharp Judaistic controversy regarding 
the obligation of the Gentile converts to keep the 
Jewish law, which gave rise to the Council of Jeru- 
salem, 50 A. D. 

Occasion. Persecution from without and 
moral defects in the Churches. The object is emi- 
nently practical, stressing the Gospel of Christ, 
rather than the Gospel about Christ. James, 
therefore, is less theological than any other N. T. 
book. Only twice Christ is mentioned (1: 1; 2:1) 
and nothing is contained in it of Christ’s life, char- 
acter, death and resurrection. 

Value and Canonicity. The letter is a rich 
mine of Christ’s ethical and social gospel, the 
“Sermon on the Mount” among the epistles.— 
Possibly because of this non-theological character 
and a belief that 2: 14-26 contradicted Paul, the 
ancient Church and Luther questioned its canonic- 


The Seven General Epistles 183 


ity. But in modern times James is being highly 
appreciated. 

Contents. The letter has five chapters. The 
general subject of the letter is: Religious and Ethi- 
cal Defects and Their Remedy. 


1. Misconception of the Nature and Function of Trials 
(1: 2-12). 
2. Dangerous Notions Concerning the Origin of Sin 
(1: 12-18). 
3. Hastiness in Speech (1: 19-21). 
4. Hearing Without Doing (1: 22-27). 
5. Class Distinctions (2: I-13). 
6. Barren Orthodoxy (2: 14-26). 
( 1h edie Ambition to Teach and Abuse of the Tongue 
3: 1-12). 
8. Lack of Discrimination Between True and False Wis- 
dom (3: 13-18). 
9. Worldliness and Covetousness (4: I-10). 
to. Ill-natured Gossip (4: 11-12). 
11. Presumptuous Confidence in the Future (4: 13-17). 
12. Unrestrained Self-Gratification and Oppression of the 
Laborer (5: 1-6). 
13. Impatience Under Suffering (5:7—11). 
14. Irreverence and Neglect of Prayer (5: 12-18). 
Conclusion :—Rescue the Erring (5: 19-20). 


First Epistle of St. Peter 


Who Wrote It. “ Peter, an apostle of Jesus 
Christ” (1:1). His proper name was Simon, his 
surname, Peter (John 1: 42; Matt. 16: 18), which 
in Hebrew is Cephas (I Cor. 9:5). He was the 
son of a Jonah (Matt. 16:17) or John (John 1: 
42; 21:15), and a brother of Andrew; by trade a 
fisherman, residing at Capernaum and married 
(Mark 1:30). First a follower of the Baptist, 
then called by Jesus (John 1:42). He became 
the recognized spokesman of the Twelve in the 


184 The Writings of the New Testament 


lifetime of Christ (Matt. 16: 16; 19: 27), in the 
primitive Church the leader of the Jewish Chris- 
tians (Acts 1: 15; 2:14), and a travelling evan- 
gelist. (Show it.) He died a martyr’s death, in 
67.—As to personality he was impulsive, warm- 
hearted and outspoken.—The type of his teaching 
was conservative, tending towards the progressive, 
as a comparison of Acts, Chaps. 2, 10, 15 and Gal. 
2 shows.—The fact that his letter resembles in 
spirit and language Paul’s writings may be due to 
his receptive, assimilative mind, but also to the 
fact that both drew largely on the common faith 
and forms of teaching in the primitive Church. 
(‘‘ Gemeindeglaube.” ) 

To Whom Written. “To the elect who are 
sojourners of the Dispersion in Pontus, Galatia, 
Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia” (1: 1).—As the 
readers were largely Gentiles (1:14; 2: 9-10; 
3:6; 4:3), “sojourners of the Dispersion” 
should be taken in a spiritual sense, of scattered 
Christian Churches, as yet separated from their 
heavenly home.—They were persectited for being 
Christians (4: 16), either on legal indictments, or 
by social ostracism and calumnies (2: 12; 3: 16). 

When and Where Written. From “ Baby- 
lon” (5:18), which was the symbolic name for 
Rome (Rev. 18:2), as the seat of oppression of 
the N. T. people of God, what old Babylon was 
to God’s people of the Old Test. If Peter made 
use of Romans and Ephesians the date must be 
after 63, probably 64-66. 


The Seven General Epistles 185 


Occasion and Object. Because of persecu- 
tion, the readers were in need of encouragement. 
The keynote therefore is hope, and the letter is 
practical throughout, exhorting the readers to a 
virtuous life, in their individual and social rela- 
tions, in order to silence the slanderers. The 
words “to do good”’ occur nine times (2: 18-25; 
3: 1-7; 4:19). 

Contents. First Peter contains five chapters. 
It does not observe a close logical sequence in its 
structure. The link between one idea and another 
is usually found in the last word of the foregoing 
section, which is taken up and followed out in the 
Pewee |) (aces sDyy Oy. by) Sy. 9. 207) ete. sin 
harmony with Peter’s pronounced sanguine, opti- 
mistic disposition, the pervading atmosphere 
throughout the whole epistle is hope. Its general 
subject is holiness of life-—(The Biblical concep- 
tion of holiness is “ separation from the world and 
consecration to God.”—Consult Hast. Dict. of the 
Bible, II, 399; III, 792.) 

I. Address and greeting (1: 1-2). 

II. The root of holiness of life is faith (1: 3-12). 

III. Some motives for sanctification (1:13-2:10). 

IV. The principles of sanctification applied to different 
social spheres (2: 11-4:6). 

V. The principle of holiness applied to the affairs of the 
church (4:7-5:11). 


a Conclusion: Messages and farewell greetings (5: 12- 
T4). 


The Second Epistle of Peter 


Who Wrote It. ‘Simon Peter, a servant 
and apostle of Jesus Christ” (1:1). This claim 


186 The Writings of the New Testament 


is rejected by most scholars, the letter being de- 
clared to be either an entire forgery, or a compila- 
tion from genuine Petrine fragments and the epistle 
of Jude by a later hand. The external evidence is 
very meagre, Origen, in the 8rd century being the 
first to mention it; it is missing in the Muratorian 
Canon and classed by Eusebius among the “ dis- 
puted books.”—ZJnternal evidence against the 
Petrine authorship:—(1) The writer’s overanxiety 
to identify himself with Peter and to link his letter 
to I Peter, excites the suspicion that he desires to 
‘use the great Apostle’s authority for his writing 
(1:1, 14, 16; 3:2).—(2) Nearly the whole of 
Jude’s letter is utilized in I] Peter, and a careful 
analysis shows that the priority must be assigned 
to Jude, which would expose the Apostle to the 
charge of plagiarism on a large scale—(3) The 
implication of 3:15, 16 that Paul’s letters were 
already collected and considered as “ Scripture,” 
that is, as being on a level with the Old Testament 
canon,— (4) Style and thought differ greatly from 
1) Reter, 

To Whom Written. “To them that have 
received a like precious faith with us” (1:1), 
that is, to the same readers as I Peter (3:1). On 
the theory of a forgery, we cannot tell who the 
readers were. 

Where and When Written. The defenders 
of its genuineness suppose it to have been written 
from Rome, about 66. If a forgery, its date may 
be around 100 or later. 


The Seven General Epistles 187 


Occasion and Object. ‘T'o counteract the in- 
fluence of false teachers of a Gnostic character and 
to stimulate the readers to acquire true knowledge, 
“Gnosis” being the keynote of the whole letter 
(2: 1-3; 1: 12; 3: 1-2). 

Contents. II Peter has three chapters. The 
keynote and general subject of this letter is knowl- 
edge, gained by Christian experience. 


I. Address and greetings (1: 1-2). 

IJ. Exhortation to Christian growth (1: 3-11). 

III. Reminder of the sure foundation of Christian faith 
and life (1: 12-21). 

. Warning against false teachers and their teaching 

(Chap. 2), 

V. The certainty, suddenness and terror of the coming 
judgment (3: I-13). 

VI. Conclusion.—Paul’s writings, final exhortations and 
doxology (3: 14-18). 


The Epistle of Jude 


Who Wrote It. “Jude, a servant of Jesus 
Christ, and brother of James” (1). The James 
here referred to was the well-known “ brother of 
the Lord” (Gal. 1:19), the head of the Church 
in Jerusalem and author of the epistle by that 
name. This Jude is therefore also a younger 
brother of Jesus and not one of the Apostles of 
the same name, for in vs. 17-18 he refers to “ the 
Apostles ” as former teachers.—The very obscurity 
of Jude is a strong argument for the genuineness 
of the epistle, as a forger would have chosen some 
more distinguished name.—That a plain writer 
cites two apocalyptic books, the “ Assumption of 


188 The Writings of the New Testament 


Moses” (vy. 9), and the book of “Enoch” 
(v. 14) proves the general familiarity of this type 
of literature among the early Christians. 

To Whom Written. “To them that are 
called, beloved in God the Father, and kept for 
Jesus Christ” (1). The Jewish character of the 
writing and its author, as well as v. 17 point to 
Palestinian Christians. 

Where and When Written. Probably at 
some place in Palestine, about 67-68, for he does 
not allude to the destruction of Jerusalem which 
would have suited his references to God’s judg- 
ment, if it had already taken place. 

Relation to II Peter. The bulk of this epistle 
is incorporated in II Peter, and the best conjecture 
is that Il Peter and not Jude was the borrower, for 
its style is fresh, clear and vivid, while II Peter is 
often obscure, harsh and difficult. 

Occasion and Object. Gross abuses of Chris- 
tian liberty were committed by evil men. In view 
of this corruption, Jude exhorts his readers to 
“contend earnestly for the faith which was once 
for all delivered unto the saints” (3). It con- 
cludes with one of the most beautiful doxologies in 
the N. T. 

Contents. This epistle has only one chapter, 
the keynote of which is a strongly-worded defence 
of pure doctrine endangered by false teachers. 


JT. Address and Greetings (1-2). 
II. Warnings of History Against Corruption by False 
Teachers (3-16). 


The Seven General Epistles 189 


III. Application of the Lessons of History (17-23). 
IV. Conclusion: an elaborate doxology (24-25). 


The First Epistle of John 


Who Wrote It. The writing is anonymous, 
but there is no doubt that the name in the ancient 
title, ‘“ of John,” is correct, referring to the apostle 
and author of the Fourth Gospel and Revelation. 
(See Chap. 16 for the facts of John’s life.)—Two 
of John’s disciples, Polycarp and Papias, as well 
as Irenzeus and Tertullian quote it. Its entire spirit 
and many verbal similarities between this epistle 
and the Fourth Gospel also prove John’s author- 
ship (1 John 4:4 and John 17: 14; I John 4:9 
and John 1: 14, 18). 

To Whom Written. Probably to the 
Churches in Asia, among whom John spent the 
latter part of his life. Chap. 5: 21 suggests con- 
verts from heathenism and points to Ephesus, the 
great stronghold of idolatry. 

Where and When Written. Probably at 
Ephesus, about 85, in John’s declining days, which 
fact would explain the many repetitions and the 
fatherly tone (2:1). 

Occasion and Object. ‘The spread of Gnostic 
denials of Christ’s true incarnation, false ideas of 
Christian liberty and perfection, and the growing 
tendency among Greek Christians to magnify in- 
tellect at the expense of practice—The letter in- 
sists on a conscious realization of the new life, and 
overflows with exhortations to love God and man 
(2: 1-11; 8: 11-18; 4: 7-18, 16-21; 5:12). The 


190 The Writings of the New Testament 


keynote of the entire epistle, and especially of 
Chap. 8, is love. It occurs ten times as a noun, 
twenty-five times as a verb, and five times as a 
verbal adjective. 

Contents. I John contains five chapters. 
Two features mark this espistle:—the majesty of 
the thoughts and the great simplicity of the lan- 
guage. It abounds in repetitions and a logical 
analysis is therefore difficult. 


I. Introduction. The purpose of the letter (1: 1-4). 

II. The Nature of Fellowship with God (1: 5-2: 28). 

III. Sonship of God. He whose life is upright gives 
proof that he is born of God (3: 1-5:12). 

IV. Conclusion (5: 13-21). 


The Second Epistle of John 


Who Wrote It. ‘“ The elder” (1), by which 
title the Apostle John is meant, and not another 
office-bearer at Ephesus by the name of John, for 
“elder” was the name of honor given to the sur- 
viving Apostles by the younger generation, as 
Papias says. Its strong resemblance to I John 
proves its Johannine authorship. 

To Whom Written. ‘Unto the elect lady 
and her children” (1). Some take this designa- 
tion literally for persons, because of vs. 1, 4, 10 
and the analogy of III John. Others understand 
it figuratively for some local Church, as vs. 5, 10, 
13 seem to imply. 

Where and When Written. Probably from 
Ephesus, about 85, subsequently to I John. 

Occasion and Object. ‘To warn against the 


The Seven General Epistles 191 


corrupting influences of false teachers denying the 
reality of Christ’s humanity (7); but here, too, 
love is strongly stressed. 

Contents. I] John contains only one short 
chapter of 13 verses. 


I. Address and greeting (1-3). 

II. The body of the letter: He expresses joy at the 
loyalty to the truth on the part of some of the members, 
commends love, which he defines as a “walk after his com- 
mandments,” warns against false teachers and their doc- 
trines and against false charity (4-I1). 

III. Conclusion—He expects to visit his correspondent 
and therefore will not write more (12, 13). 


The Third Epistle of John 


Who Wrote It. “The elder” (1). See the 
explanation in IT John. 

To Whom Written. “Unto Gaius the be- 
loved”’ (1), a faithful and liberal member of the 
church (1-6). Whether he was one of the Gaiuses 
mentioned in the N. T. (Acts 19: 20; Rom. 16: 23; 
I Cor. 1: 14) is uncertain, as the name was a very 
common one. 

When and Where Written. Probably from 
Ephesus, subsequently to I John, about 85. 

Occasion and Object. A warning against 
schism. An ambitious ‘‘ Church boss,” named 
Diotrephes refused to recognize John’s authority 
by treating people sent by him with harshness. He 
warns Gaius against this tyrannous man. 

Contents. JII John contains only one chap- 
ter of 14 verses. 


192 The Writings of the New Testament 


I. Address and Greetings (1). 
II. The body of the letter:—John wishes Gaius temporal 
and spiritual prosperity and expresses joy at his loyalty to 
the truth, and for his hospitality toward travelling or fugitive 
Christians. He denounces the hierarchical despotism of 
Diotrephes in denying John’s authority (2-12). 
Ly, SAC aa to see Gaius soon. Salutations 
13-14). 


CHAPTER XXV. 
THE PROPHETIC BOOK OF REVELATION 


Literature: 

Consult the literature in Chaps. 1 and 14. 

Porter, “’The Apocalyptic Messages of the Bible.” 

Peake, “ The Revelation of St. John.’ 

Swete, “ The Apocalypse of St. John.” 

Spitta, ““ Die Offenbarung des Johannes.” 

Stockmann, “ Reichsgeschichtliche Auslegung der Offen- 
barung des Johannes.” 

Stevens, “New Testament Theology.” 


To What Class of Literature Revelation Be- 
longs. It is the only N. T. specimen of a dis- 
tinctive, large and popular class of Jewish litera- 
ture, called apocalyptic because these writings 
claimed to uncover the future; flourishing between 
168 B. c.—100 A. D.; occasioned by foreign political 
and religious oppression and internal disloyalty; 
aiming to comfort the sufferers, to predict the 
speedy coming of the day of judgment, when right 
will triumph, the oppressors and the disloyal be 
punished and the faithful rewarded. These books 
were almost exclusively written in the form of 
visions, consisting of elaborate and often fantastic 
imagery and symbolical figures; published under 
assumed names of authorship, usually that of an 
ancient highly revered man of God, such as Enoch, 
Abraham, Moses, Daniel, etc., as a precaution 
against the consequences of free speech on political 

193 


194 The Writings of the New Testament 


and social issues. Much of this peculiar literature 
is now known to us and its careful study has fur- 
nished Bible scholars with the key to the correct 
interpretation of the N. T. Apocalypse. 

Who Wrote It. Four times the author in- 
troduces himself_as “ John,” but without any mark 
of identification (1:1, 4, 9; 22:8). ‘There are 
three theories as to the identity of this John. (1) 
Strong external evidence (Justin Martyr, Irenzus, 
Muratorian Canon), and considerable internal 
proofs point to the Apostle John, the author of the 
Fourth Gospel. Some important resemblances be- 
tween these two books suggest identity of author- 
ship. The names “ Lamb” and “word” are ap- 
plied to Christ only in the Fourth Gospel (1: 1, 29, 
86), in Revelation (5: 6, 8, 12; 19: 18), and in I 
John 1:1. Some favorite expressions in John’s 
Gospel and epistle, such as, “he that overcometh,” 
“witness,” “true,” are of frequent occurrence in 
Revelation. ‘The assurance of the final triumph of 
Christ in spite of temporary defeat occurs in both 
books. 


Note—Other critics, beginning as early as Dionysius of 
Alexandria, emphasize the marked differences between Reve- 
lation and the Gospel, in spirit and style, and identify the 
John of Revelation with “ The elder” of II and III John. 
But the superior style and language in the Gospel may be 
better explained by the long interval between the two writ- 
ings. (The Baur school turns the argument around, ac- 
cepting the Apostle’s authorship of Revelation, and for this 
reason rejecting him as the author of the Fourth Gospel.)— 
Still others hold that according to the custom of all apoca- 
lyptic books, “ John” is a pseudonym, and the real author is 
unknown. 


Prophetic Book of Revelation 195 


To Whom Written. “To the seven churches 
that are in Asia” (1:4, 11; Chaps. 2 and 3), but 
evidently meant for the Church at large. 

Where and When Written. If it is held that 
Revelation is a unity, 1. e., that the whole book in its 
present form was written at one time, and if from 
1:11: 10: 4; 14:18; 19: 9; 21:5 it is concluded 
that all the visions were received at one time and 
were written down immediately after they were 
received, then the place may have been Patmos, 
during the brief reign of Emperor Galba, 68 a. D., 
this date being based on the definite statements in 
13: 3, 18 and 17: 9-11. In this case, the ancient tra- 
dition that John’s banishment to Patmos occurred 
under Domitian (81-96) rests on some error.— 
But if Revelation is regarded as a collection of 
visions, received, written down, and published 
separately at different times, and later revised by 
John and collected into one book, then the implied 
dates in several visions would only refer to the 
vision of which they are a part; that is, Chaps. 13 
and 17 would date from Galba’s time and Chaps. 
1-3 from the reign of Domitian. Much internal 
evidence—the frequent breaks and the many repe- 
titions favor this theory of origin. 

Occasion and Aim. As with all apocalyptic 
books, Revelation was occasioned by oppression of 
the people of God by outside enemies and by dis- 
loyalty and worldliness on the part of lukewarm 
members of the Church. The contents of Revela- 
tion shows plainly that the persecuting power was 


196 The Writings of the New Testament 


the Roman government, which tried to force upon 
the Christians the Emperor Worship, the refusal 
of which cost many lives. 

The Aim of Revelation was the same as that 
of all other apocalyptic books, to comfort the 
Christians suffering under Roman persecution, to 
encourage them to remain faithful to Christ, to 
warn the lukewarm, to predict the speedy coming 
of judgment at Christ’s second advent, when Rome 
would be destroyed, the disloyal members severely 
punished and the faithful greatly rewarded. 

The Chief Subject of Revelation, therefore, is 
the speedy second coming of Christ to deal out 
rewards and punishment and to reconstruct the 
earth by the complete establishment of God’s ruler- 
ship (1: 7; Chaps. 21 and 22).—While many parts 
of Revelation were not literally fulfilled as under- 
stood by John and the first readers, the general 
drift of the prophecy was true and fulfilled its real 
aim of carrying the Church through a time of trial 
by its cheering prospects of ultimate victory. 

Note r—Revelation was, therefore, not written to fore- 
cast events of a far-distant future, but of the immediate 
future in John’s time (Rev. 1:1, 3, 7, S$) 203 sere ae 
22:12). 1t 1s not a. NivT. ‘time-table, or an altnanacwte 
enable inquisitive Christians to do the very things which 
Christ expressly forbade them to do, in Mark 13:32; Acts 
1:7. For example:—the “ beast” in Chap. 13 is Emperor 
Nero, and not the pope, or Luther, or Napoleon, or a 
modern ruler. 

Note 2—The method of interpretation advocated here is 
called “the contemporaneous-historical” or “the Preterist,” 
which interprets Revelation on the assumption that all it con- 


tains was meant for the first century, hence “ praeter,”’ past.— 
The three defective methods are known as: (1) The continu- 


Prophetic Book of Revelation 197 


ous-historical, assuming that the fulfillment of Rev. is going 
on throughout history, past, present and future—(2) The 
futurist which believes that the chief contents of Rev. will 
be fulfilled immediately before the end of the world—(3) 
The spiritual or symbolical, which interprets Rev. on the 
assumption that all visions refer to principles of good and 
bad and none to definite events or persons, past, present, or 
future. 


Permanent Value and Importance of Revela- 
tion. (1) It strengthens our faith in the ulti- 
mate triumph of righteousness. “ ‘Truth crushed 
to earth will rise again.” It is a bracing spiritual 
tonic when rightly used—(2) The stress on the 
ethical conception of Christianity is very strong. 
Not mere creeds but practice (6: 9-11; 13: 3-10; 
14: 4-13; 16:15; 19:9; 20: 6).—(8) Rev. ap- 
peals to the heroic and denounces compromises 
with the “world.” No emperor-worship of any 
kind and under any circumstances! ‘The luke- 
warm will be rejected. How important to-day !— 
(4) Its devotional, liturgical and homiletical use is 
very extensive in our hymns, Church liturgies and 
devotional books. 

Contents. Revelation contains twenty-two 
chapters. The supposed “sacred” number 7 
dominates the whole structure of the book, it being 
skilfully arranged into seven chief divisions, each 
of which falls into seven subdivisions, most of 
these being more or less clearly marked. 


Introduction (Chap 1). Contains superscription (1-3) ; 
Address and salutation (4-6) ; the theme (7) ; attestation of 
the book (8) ; the vision of Christ in glory and John’s com- 
mission (9-20). 


198 The Writings of the New Testament 
I. The Seven Letters to the Seven Churches (Chaps. 2 


and 3). 

II. The Seven Seals (4: 1-8:6). 

1.—The vision of God, the author of the sealed book (4: 
I-II). 

2.—The sealed book of destiny (5: 1-5). 

3.—The vision of the slain lamb (5:6-7). 

4.—The adoration of the lamb (5:8-14). 

5.—The vision of the six seals (Chap. 6). 

6.—Vision of the safety of the saints on earth (7: 1-8). 

7.—Vision of the Church triumphant in heaven (7: 9-17). 
III. Vision of the Seven Trumpets (8: 1-11: 19). 

: —Silence in heaven and the angel with the golden censer 
(821-5). 

2.—The four plagues on inanimate nature: land, sea, rivers 
and sky, and the eagle in midheaven (8: 6-13). 

3.—Fifth trumpet and first woe.—The locusts arising from 
the pit, led by Abaddon-Apollyon (9: I-12). 

4.—Sixth trumpet and second woe. Loosing of the four 
angels at the Euphrates (9: 13-21). 

5.—The angel with the little book (Chap. 10). 
ass safety of the Christians and the two witnesses 
TESisi 37) 

7.—The seventh trumpet or third woe and the ark (11: 14- 


19). 
IV. Vision of the Seven Mystic Figures (12: 1-14: 20). 
1.—Vision of the woman and the child (Chap. 12: 1-2). 
2.—The Dragon, his rebellion in heaven and banishment to 
earth (12: 3-12). 

3.—The fleeing woman—persecution of the Church (12: 
13-13: 1a). 

4.—Vision of the beast from the sea—Rome’s political 
power (13: 1b—I0). 

5.—Vision of the second beast from the earth, the false 
prophet—Rome’s religious power (13: 11-18). 

6.—Vision of the lamb on Mount Zion and the army of 
the faithful (14: 1-5). 

7.—Anticipating details of the coming judgment (14:6- 


20). 

V. The Seven Bowls (Chaps. 15 and 16). 

Sia ea for pouring out of the seven bowls (Chap. 
15). 
2.—The actual pouring out of the bowls, symbolizing God’s 
judgment (Chap. 16). 

VI, The Sevenfold Judgment upon Rome (Chaps. 17 
and 18). 


Prophetic Book of Revelation 199 


1—The fall of Rome described in the vision of the harlot 
upon the beast (Chap. 17). 

2—Announcement of her fall and summons to God’s peo- 
ple to come out from the doomed city (18: 1-8). 

3.—Lamentation of the kings over Rome’s fall (18: 9-10). 

4.—Lamentation of the merchants over Rome's fall (18: 
abso 
5.—Lamentation of the ship-owners over Rome’s fall (18: 

Ay 

6.—Rejoicing of John over Rome’s fall (18:20). 

7—Vision of the great millstone, symbolizing Rome’s 
utter destruction (18: 21-24). 
Vil.—Sevenfold Triumph (19: 1-22:5). 

1—vTriumph in heaven over Rome’s fall (19: I-10). 

2.—The triumph of the victorious captain of our salvation 
(19: 11-16). 

3.—Christ’s triumph over Rome viewed as a feast for the 
birds of prey (19:17-18). 

4.—Description of the punishment of the two beasts, and 
the dragon, followed by the Millennial reign of Christ and 
the martyrs (19: 19-20:6). 

5.—Loosing of Satan and final conflict and Christ’s triumph 
(20: 7-10). 

6.—General resurrection and last judgment (20: 11-15). 

lin heavenly Jerusalem coming down to earth (21: I- 
oo Pi 

Epistolary Conclusion. Addressed to the seven Churches 
(22: 6-21). 


General Review of Part III 


1—The Gospels:—Explain Greek and English word, and 
descriptive additions; of each of the four Gospels sketch 
author’s life, readers, time of writing, aim and character- 
istics; how did the synoptic Gospels originate; how does 
John’s Gospel differ from the Synoptics. 

2.—Book of Acts:—Author, sources, credibility, purpose, 
divisions. 

3.—Epistles—Modern distinction between “epistle” and 
“letter” ;—advantages and disadvantages of the epistolary 
form of N. T. literature;—present prevailing opinion as to 
the authorship of the N. T. epistles. 

4.—Account of Paul’s life—year of birth, education, con- 
version, three missionary journeys; his personality—out- 
ward appearance, intellectual and emotional characteristics 
and will power; his advantages for leadership and methods 


200 The Writings of the New Testament 


of work; his letters, four chronological groups, when and 
where each epistle was written, critical results. 

5.—Epistle to Hebrews:—Author, readers, theme, purpose 
and general outlines. 

6.—Enumerate the seven general epistles and state of 
each, author, readers, when and where written. 

7.—Revelation:—State class of literature, author, readers, 
an method of interpretation, chief divisions and permanent 
value. 


PART IV 


Variety in the Unity of 
The New Testament Writings 


CHAPTER XXVI 


DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NEW TESTAMENT 
AND SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY 


Literature: 

Bernard, “ Progress of Doctrine in the N. T.” 

Schaff-Herzog, “ New Encyclopedia,” Vol. II, p. 183. 

“Recent Christian Progress,” by Hartford Professors, pp. 
69 and 132. 

Clemen, “ Primitive Christianity and its Non-Jewish 


Clarke, ‘ ‘Use of the Scriptures in Theology,” pp. 102-116. 
Bacon, “ He Opened unto us the Scriptures.” 

Robertson, A. T., “Paul the Interpreter Of Chinst 
Feine, “ Tesus Christus und Paulus.” 

j Schaeder, “Das Evangelium Jesu und das Evangelium von 

esu.’ 

Bartlett, “Apostolic Age,” p. 

Case, ‘ ‘Evolution of Early Christianity,” Chaps. I and II. 
Pfleiderer, “Origin of Christianity.” 


Works on Systematic Theology for Comparison 

Strong, “ Outlines of Systematic Theology.” 

Hodge, Charles, “ Systematic Theology,” (3 vol.). 

Hodge, Alex., “ Outlines of Theology.” 

Brown, “ Outlines of Doctrine.” 

Ames, “ The New Orthodoxy.” 

Egerton, “ Liberal Theology and the Grounds of Faith.” 
Kaftan, “ Moderne Theologie des alten Glaubens.” 
Rauschenbusch, “A Theology for the Social Gospel.” 
Gore, Chas., “ The New Theology and the Old Religion.” 


Variety in Unity 
A CAREFUL study of the 27 N. T. books impresses 
201 


202 The Writings of the New Testament 


one with the fact that, while exhibiting a grand 
unity as to fundamental principles and aim, they 
express these essentials in a great variety of 
thought, scope, style, method, language, etc., ex- 
actly as one might expect to find in a library of 
booklets, written by nine different authors, inde- 
pendently one from the other, and elicited by dif- 
ferent needs. These varieties are known as types 
of teaching, and the modern science which treats 
of the N. T. literature from the viewpoint of their 
variety is called “ N. T. Theology.” 

New Testament Theology, therefore, is a sub- 
division of exegetical theology, aiming to ascertain 
and to set forth in some orderly arrangement the 
teachings found in the various groups of the N. T. 
books, with the view to answering the questions:— 
What Jesus really taught; what the actual beliefs 
of the primitive Church were; what is Paul’s type 
of teaching; what were the various interrelations 
and connections in the complex developments of 
the Apostolic Church, etc. 

Note 1—As N. T. Theology aims to give a history of the 
religious thinking of the Apostolic Church, some place it 
under historical theology; and because it is the basis of 
systematic theology, others regard it as a subdivision of that 
department. 

Note 2—The title “N. T. Theology” is too narrow be- 
cause this science treats not only of the theological, but also 
of the ethical and social teachings of the N. T. A more 
exact title would be: “ The Religious Teaching of the New 
Testament.”—In the N. T., as in actual life, these two 
aspects of religion are inseparably intertwined and are 
therefore usually treated together in one and the same text- 


book. But as our times demand a much clearer study of 
the ethical and social teaching of the N. T. than is usually 


New Testament and Theology 203 


given in books on N. T. Theol., the new method is to treat 
these two subjects in separate courses, the one on i 
ethics, and especially on Christ’s social teaching, following 
in logical sequence the course on N. T. Theology in the 
narrower sense. In Systematic Theology this separation has 
been made since Calixtus in 1641. 


Difference Between N. T. and Systematic 
Theology 


N. T. Theology differs from Systematic The- 
ology in aim, material, and method. 

(1) The sole aim of N. T. Theology is to ascer- 
tain the theological, ethical and social teachings of 
the N. T. books and to state the result, orderly, 
objectively, yet sympathetically, without attacking 
or defending it; while the aim of Systematic The- 
ology is to construe from the material at hand a 
logically consistent system of Christian belief of 
the Church universal or of one or a group of de- 
nominations, expressed in the thought forms and 
language of the age, adapted to meet contemporary 
conditions, and also to defend Christian truth. 
True to its aim, these systems of theology have 
changed in every important epoch, while living 
faith in Christ is perennial. In the words of 
Tennyson: 


“Our little systems have their day; 
They have their day and cease to be; 
They are but broken lights of Thee; 
And Thou, O Lord, art more than they.” 


For this reason leading theologians in all ages have 
conscientiously tried to construe new theologies of 
the old faith. 


204 The Writings of the New Testament 


(2) New Testament theology draws its material 
exclusively from the N. T. books, while Systematic 
Theology bases its system on the whole Bible, omit- 
ting only such parts, especially of the Old Testa- 
ment, as represent inferior stages of Divine revela- 
tion and religious development, such as the law- 
system of salvation, low ideals of morality, matters 
of only local and passing interest, etc. But in ad- 
dition to the Biblical material, Systematic Theology 
makes extensive use of such secondary matter as 
the creeds, comparative religion, philosophy, sci- 
ence, art, Church History, and especially religious 
experience. 

(3) New Testament theology follows strictly 
the historical method: that is, (a) it deals with 
genetic relations, tries to trace the source of a 


teaching, to show how the authors were influenced » 


by their predecessors and contemporaries (Jews 
and Gentiles), and how one author influenced the 
other (Christ, Paul, Peter, John).—(0) It traces 
the development of each doctrine or type, but only 
as far as found within the N. T.—(c) It calls at- 
tention to the gaps found in the statement of the 
various N. T. doctrines, due to the fact that all 
N. T. books were occasional writings, with prac- 
tical and not systematic aims.—(d) It explains the 
historical conditions by which the rise and develop- 
ment of those types were influenced. (Paul’s 
method of conversion and missionary experience 
influenced his teaching.)—(e) It compares the 
peculiarities of the different types to see whether 


= ia ae as ai i 


New Testament and Theology 205 


they agree or disagree.—(f) It aims to assume in 
its statement the point of view of each writer.— 
(g) It points out the emphasis which each writer 
puts on his various teachings. Doctrines only 
slightly touched upon in the N. T. must not be 
made the backbone of a system, e. g., the millen- 
nium, Adam’s fall, double predestination, etc. 

Systematic Theology endeavors to bring out, not 
the variety, but the unity, harmony and complete- 
ness of the Christian teaching. It therefore uses 
the logical method, arranging its material into an 
organic, consistent system, by filling in the gaps 
with extra-Biblical material. It also tries to adjust 
the Christian truth to the prevailing spirit of the 
times, of the Church, of philosophy, of science and 
general culture. Therefore, Systematic Theology 
has always been more or less influenced by the cul- 
ture of the age, its philosophy, science, literature 
and politics. Each theological system is the intel- 
lectual expression of the spiritual experiences of a 
particular age. 


CHAPTER XXVII 


DESCRIPTION: OF) THEN] Tot iY bore 
TEACHING 


Laterature: 
Consult bibliography in Chaps. 1, 14 and 26. 


By types of teaching are meant those peculiari- 
ties by which the leading N. T. teachers differ one 
from the other, as to general viewpoint, matter 
and method. 

These types are not merely individualistic ex- 
pressions of the common Christian teaching, due 
merely to personal idiosyncrasies and peculiar ex- 
periences, but are also presentations of doctrine so 
shaped as to meet the opposing forms of teaching. 
The peculiarity of Paul’s type, e. g., can best be 
understood when it is remembered that his argu- 
ments are shaped in a way to meet the errors of 
the Judaizers. 

Note—Due to the accommodating nature of Christian 
truth and the peculiarity of the human mind, this forming 
of types of theology has been going on to this day, in the 


shaping of the Greek, Latin, scholastic, German, British, 
American, and the various denominational types. 


Brief Description of the Various Types 


The N. T. presents two chief types of teaching, 
that of Jesus and that of the apostles. 
I. The type of Christ’s teaching is presented 


in two forms: 
206 


Types of New Testament Teaching 207 


(a) The synoptic type. As compared with 
John, the Synoptic Gospels were written earlier 
(A. D. 65-75), are more primitive in matter and 
more objective in method. 

(b) The Johannine type. John’s Gospel was 
written late (about 95 a. D.), contains more pro- 
found matter and is more subjective in method. 
As the language and style of Jesus in John is so 
different from that in the synoptists and is so sim- 
ilar to John’s own diction, it is generally assumed 
that John, after thorough absorption of Christ’s 
teaching, reproduced it in the forms of his own 
thought and language. 

Il. The Teaching of the Apostles is repre- 
sented in the N. T. by four chief types. 

(1) The Primitive Type. 

(a) Literary sources:—The editorial matter in 
the three synoptics, Acts I-XIII, James, Jude, I 
and ITI Peter. 

(b) The Method is practical, direct, non-phil- 
osophical. The Jewish Christians were at first 
unconscious of any break between Christianity and 
Judaism, and were considered merely a Jewish sect. 
They kept the law, and yet insisted on salvation 
through grace alone. Later Paul compelled them 
to think out their principles to ultimate results. 

(c) Varieties within the primitive type:—The 
Judaizers insisted on the permanent obligation of 
the Mosaic law for all Christians, including the 
Gentiles (Acts 15: 1; Gal. 2: 4).—A conservative, 
yet evangelical group, represented by James, the 


208 The Writings of the New Testament 


Lord’s brother and partly by John and Peter dur- 
ing their early periods—-The three synoptists, 
though they do not inject their subjective views 
into their narrative, yet in selecting, omitting and 
arranging of the material, and by giving promi- 
nence to certain lines of Christ’s teaching, each one 
shows clearly his viewpoint. For example, Mat- 
thew, writing for Hebrew Christians, emphasizes 
the Messiahship of Jesus; Mark stresses in his 
opening sentence his belief that Jesus is the Son of 
God and in selecting and arranging his material 
he establishes his proposition; Luke shows his be- 
lief in Christ’s supernatural birth, emphasizes the 
universality of Christ’s salvation and of human 
brotherhood with no barrier between Jew, Gentile, 
or Samaritan, rich or poor, man or woman.— 
Stephen, being a Hellenist, shows a decided ad- 
vance beyond Peter, and forms the connecting link 
between the primitive and the Pauline types, for 
he emphasizes the abolition of the law as a way of 
salvation and insists on the spirituality of Chris- 
tianity (Acts 6: 14).—FPeter’s growth can be traced 
from Pentecost to the baptism of the Gentile Cor- 
nelius (Acts 10: 11), to his demand that Gentiles 
should not be required to be circumcised (Acts 15), 
to his first epistle (a. p. 63-66), which shows 
Paul’s influence so plainly that some have denied 
the Petrine authorship. 

(2) The Pauline Type. 

(a) Literary sources: Acts XITI-XXVIII and 
Paul’s Thirteen Epistles. 


Types of New Testament Teaching 209 


(b) The basis of Paul’s theology is the O. T., 
Pharisaic and Alexandrian Judaism, the evan- 
gelical tradition, and especially the experiences of 
his life and work. 

(c) The general character:—By Paulinism we 
mean his teaching of the universality of salvation 
on the sole condition of faith in Jesus as the Christ, 
the Son of God. It is vigorously anti-legal, char- 
acterized by an uncompromising insistence that the 
law as a way of salvation is superseded by the 
Gospel and is a positive hindrance even to the Jews, 
and that the Gentile stands on an equality with 
the Jew. 

(d) The Method of Paul is dialectical and 
argumentative, wherefore he is the parent of specu- 
lative theology. (The first Protestant systems, 
Melanchthon’s “ Loci Communes ” and the Heidel- 
berg Catechism are based on the plan of Romans.) 

(e) The value of Paul’s teaching is so great that 
it has been overestimated by two extremes—by 
the radicals, who regard him as the real founder of 
Christianity, and by the Protestants who have based 
their dogmatic systems almost exclusively on the 
Pauline type.—His many-sided argumentative pres- 
entation of Christ’s Gospel has exerted a wonder- 
ful influence in all ages. (Luther, Wesley.) 

(f) Progress.—Paul’s inspired thinking passed 
through four stages of development, corresponding 
to his rich personal and official experience:—I and 
II Thessalonians (a. D. 57) reflect the simplicity 
of the primitive type and subtle argumentation is 


210 The Writings of the New Testament 


absent. But the ideas are genuinely Pauline — 
Corinthians (A. pv. 57), Romans and Galatians 
(A. D. 58), show the most complete exposition of 
Paul’s theology, especially his anthropology and 
soteriology.—E\phesians, Colossians, Philippians, 
and Philemon (written from first Roman imprison- 
ment, A. D. 61-63), exhibit his advanced Chris- 
tology.—The Pastoral Epistles, I Timothy, Titus, 
and II Timothy (written after his first and during 
his second Roman imprisonment, a. D. 64—67), lay 
stress on Church government and the practical 
Christian life. 

(3) Modified Paulinism. 

(a) Literary source:—The Epistle to the He- 
brews. 

(b) This letter resembles Paul’s teaching as to — 
general spirit and point of view, but differs from it 
in considering the O. T. dispensation as a sacrificial 
cult, while Paul views it as a legal system. 

(4) The Johannine Type. 

(a) Literary sources:—Revelation, I, IJ and III 
John, the editorial parts of John’s Gospel, which 
latter are more important than the corresponding 
parts in the synoptics, and John’s reproduction of 
Christ’s teaching. 

(6) John was familiar with contemporaneous 
philosophy, (Philo’s logos and gnosticism). 

(c) The problem in John.—As Paul in his later 
epistles, so is John confronted with the denial of 
the true incarnation of the Logos, the true Deity 
of Christ, and by incipient gnosticism. 


Types of New Testament Teaching 211 


(d) Spirit and Method.—John is a mystic, by 
which is meant that he received truth by intuition 
and by direct contemplation, instead of by the 
process of reasoning and speculation. And as he 
received, so he communicated the truth. He does 
not argue; he defines and describes what he sees 
with his inner eye. 


CHAPTER XXVIII 


HISTORY, VALUE AND METHOD OF N. T. 
THEOLOGY 


In a general way, N. T. theology is as old as 
N. T. exegesis itself, for careful Bible students in 
all ages have recognized the distinctions among the 
N. T. authors with more or less clearness; but as a 
separate branch of the theological science, it dates 
from the German theologian Gabler, in 1787. 


History of New Testament Theology 


The main reason for this late appearance is that 
until then, Catholics as well as Protestants assumed 
the perfect identity of their creeds with the Bible, 
and felt or at least admitted no discord between 
their teaching and that of the Bible, especially the 
N. T. Hence, the thought of studying the two 
systems separately and of comparing them did not 
enter their consciousness. But when in the 17th 
and 18th centuries a Protestant scholasticism arose, 
both in the Lutheran and Reformed Churches, 
burying again the springs of Scripture beneath 
speculative dogmatics, the reaction of rationalism 
in the 18th century made the first conscious 
attempt to treat the Bible historically. But 
these liberal scholars went ‘to the other ex- 
treme, minimizing or denying the special inspira- 

212 


New Testament Theology 213 


tion of the Bible. (English Deism and Ger- 
man Rationalism, later Strauss and Baur.) ‘This 
led to a revival of evangelical theology, based 
on a more thorough, impartial, and sympathetic 
study of the N. T. from the historical viewpoint, 
bringing out not only the varieties of types, but 
also its unity in essence (led by Schleiermacher, 
Neander, Schmid, and others). This activity has 
been going on ever since, as the books on “N. T. 
Theology,’ by B. Weiss, Beyschlag, Stevens, 
Adeney, Sheldon, Gould, Kennedy, Schlatter, 
Feine, Holtzmann, and many articles in the various 
dictionaries of the Bible show. 

The first American treatise on the subject was 
Thompson’s “Theology of Christianity”? which 
appeared in 1870; and Union Theological Semi- 
nary of New York was the first institution in 
America which offered a course in N. T. Theology, 
given by Dr. Briggs, in 1883. ‘To-day the exe- 
getical courses in all up-to-date American The- 
ological Seminaries are not considered complete 
without courses in Old and New ‘Testament 
Theology, forming the climax of the exegetical 
processes. 

But even to-day we often meet with two mis- 
conceptions that stand in the way of fully recog- 
nizing the variety in the unity of the N. T. teach- 
ing. 

(a) An unscriptural idea of inspiration, as if it 
had been a process by which a sum of ready-made 
doctrines were mechanically communicated by the 


214 The Writings of the New ‘Testament 


Holy Spirit to the Bible authors, in the expression 
of which the authors served as mere “ pens,” being 
more or less passive. From this it was concluded 
that, since there was but one author of all 27 N. T. 
books, their teaching must be absolutely uniform, 
not merely as to.fundamental principles, but also 
as to viewpoint, method, style, expression, etc. 
Of course, every page of the N. T. contradicts such 
a notion of the origin of these books.—Inspiration 
is a special quickening of the religious life of the 
Biblical authors, which tends to elevate and purify, 
but not to neutralize or destroy the personality and 
the individual gifts of the authors. The Bible is a 
faithful record of these religious experiences and 
of God’s progressive revelation of religious truth. 

(b) Too radical theories, claimed as logical re- 
sults from the application of this method, also tend 
to discredit it with sober minded scholars. The 
Baur-Tuebingen School of N. T. criticism asserted 
that the N. T. books reflected not only a vartety of 
types, but an “irreconcilable conflict’ as to funda- 
mentals. They divide the N. T. books into three 
groups:—(1) Jewish Christian (Revelation )—(2) 
Pauline (I and II Cor., Gal., and Rom.)—(3) 
Tendency books written in the 2nd century (all 
the rest). 


Value and Importance of N. T. Theology 


(1) It answers the all important question:— 
What did Christ and His apostles really teach? 


New Testament Theology 215 


Philosophical systems, creeds, hymns, etc., have too 
long prevented a clear answer to this question. 

(2) It thus furnished the means for correcting 
our dogmatic and ethical systems by taking us back 
to the sole standard of faith and practice recog- 
nized by Protestants. 

(3) It makes Bible teaching and preaching more 
effective by bringing us face to face with the Word 
of God in all its original power and freshness. 


Different Methods of Studying N. T. 
Theology 


(1) The group method.—Divide the N. T. 
books into as many groups as there are distinct 
types of teaching and study the teaching of each 
group as far as it is contained in the literature of 
that group. This is the method adopted by most 
writers.—Its advantage is that it preserves the 
historical character of the study and brings out with 
great distinctness the peculiarities of each author 
and of his development. Its disadvantage is that 
distinctness of type tends to exaggeration; that it 
makes comparison difficult and is liable to obscure 
the unity of the N. T. teaching on the separate 
doctrines. 

(2) The topical method.—Trace each of the 
doctrines of the N. T., step by step, through the 
whole length of the various types. ‘This method is 
especially used in the Bible dictionaries. The 
advantage of this method is that comparison is 
made easy because the complete teaching of the 


‘& 


216 The Writings of the New Testament 


entire N. TI’. on each doctrine is seen from a bird’s- 
eye view. It makes the unity of the N. T. teaching 
clearer and facilitates the practical use of the 
material. Its danger is that it may obscure the 
types of teaching and their development. 

(3) The monographic method.—The teaching 
of a single author, or of a group of books, or of 
one important doctrine may be separately treated; 
as, e. g., the Pauline and Johannine teaching, or the 
teaching of Jesus, or the N. T. teaching on the 
Kingdom of God, on the Holy Spirit, on wealth, 
Cle, 

(4) In recent times, the ethical and social teach- 
ings of Christ and the Apostles are being as care- 
fully separated from their theological teaching as 
is possible and studied in greater detail than in 
previous times. (See Vollmer, Ph, “N. T. 
Sociology,” 1-20.) 


CHAPTER XXIX 


HISTORICAL ROOTS OF THE NEW 
TESTAMENT TEACHING 
Literature: 

Consult books and articles on the “History of N. TT. 
Times,” in Chaps. I and 14. 

THE N. T. teaching is not original in the sense 
of being rootless. The foundations on which 
Christ and the Apostles built are:—(1) the Old 
Testament.—(2) Post-Canonical Judaism in its 
two types—Pharisaism and Hellenism.—(3) The 
teaching of John the Baptist—Hence, neither the 
contents nor the form of the N. T. literature can 
be adequately understood without some knowledge 
of these sources. 

(1) The Old Testament.—Most of the funda- 
mental doctrines of the N. T. have their roots, and 
many of them also their development, in the O. T. 
As, for instance, the unity, personality, supremacy, 
holiness, righteousness, and love of God; the idea 
of the Kingdom of God; the blending of morality 
with religion, etc—The N. T. confirms these doc- 
trines, corrects what is narrow and materialistic 
in them, alters in many cases their proportion and 
emphasis, exalting and expanding what had been 
previously neglected,—(the fatherhood and im- 
manence of God )—and assuming what had already 
been emphasized in the O. T. 

217 


218 ‘The Writings of the New Testament 


(2) Post-Canonical Judaism.—(a) The Phar- 
isaic Type. ‘This influenced the N. T. teachers for 
the most part negatively, by way of repulsion and 
attack. Its externalization of religion, its deism, 
extreme legalism, and the perversion of the Mes- 
sianic ideal served as the background against which 
they set forth their ideal of spiritual religion—As 
positive influences exerted on the N. T. by 
Pharisaism may be mentioned its emphasis on the 
divine sovereignty, on the free will of man, their 
teaching that Adam’s fall influenced all mankind, 
the doctrine of the resurrection, future judgment, 
the intermediate state in Hades (divided into 
Paradise or Abraham’s bosom and Gehenna), the 
value attached to the inspired Scripture, much of 
its angelology and demonology.—(b) Hellentstic 
Judaism or Alexandrianism (both these terms 
denoting Judaism under the influence of Greek 
philosophy). This influenced some N. T. writers 
by its more liberal attitude toward the law; its 
allegorical interpretations and its idea of the logos 
as a mediator between God and man. 


Note—Illustrations of the influence of both types of 
Judaism may be traced in the N. T. as follows: 

(1) In the form of entire books (Revelation) or in quota- 
tions (in Jude from the book of Enoch and Assumption of 
Moses). 

(2) In Paul’s writings:—II Thess. 2, called the “little 
apocalypse”; I Cor. 10:4: the rabbinical idea of a literal 
rock which followed the Israelites and supplied them with 
water ;—I Cor. 10:11 seems to adopt the interpretation of 
Gen. 6:2 that woman may become a temptation to angels :— 
the examples of sorcerers in I Timothy 3:8; also Paul’s 
emphasis on predestination, the influence of Adam’s fall on 
mankind; the contrast between flesh and spirit. 


Sources of New Testament Teaching 219 


(3) Many passages in Hebrews remind one of Philo. 
For instance, Heb. 1:1 resembles Philo’s description of 
Wisdom and the Logos; the way of quoting scripture (“he 
says somewhere’); the idea of the Mosaic tabernacle as 
being a copy of the real heavenly tabernacle; also what is 
said of Abraham’s oath; and the phrase, “the great high 
priest.” 

(4) In John’s writings it is especially the prologue and its 
attack on gnosticism which shows Greek influence. 


(3) Influence of the Baptist. His significance 
consists in the fact that he constitutes the link in 
the chain of doctrinal development between the Old 
and the New Testaments. In his preaching he em- 
phasized four points:—The immediate advent of 
the Kingdom of God, which will be ushered in by 
a personal Messiah, who will first judge the people 
and then bring national prosperity and glory to a 
repentant nation, baptizing them with the Holy 
Spirit. 


Note.—The Sadducees had no positive and little negative 
influence on the N. T. teaching, as they were more of a 
political party than a theological school—The Essenes are 
supposed by some to have influenced the teachings of Jesus. 
But there is no evidence that he ever met any of them; and 
while there is some resemblance between their teachings on 
purity, brotherliness, and unworldliness with Christ’s similar 
doctrines, yet in essence they are opposed to each other. 
Their idea of purity is ceremonial. They sought unworldli- 
ness by isolation. Their brotherliness was confined to mem- 
bers of their own sect—vThat Christ was influenced by 
Buddhism or Egyptian theosophy is a modern fad, and Paul’s 
appropriations from the Stoics and the Mystery cults are 
greatly exaggerated. 


The above survey of the historical sources of 
the N. T. proves:—(1) that none of the theo- 
logical or philosophical schools, prevalent in our 


220 The Writings of the New Testament 


Lord’s time can be regarded in any way as the 
parent of Christianity ;—(2) that primitive Chris- 
tianity, however, was not isolated from the the- 
ological thinking and religious life of the times; 
—(3) that Christianity has its closest affinity with 
O. T. prophetism, and is firmly rooted in Christ’s 
consciousness, that, “ My doctrine i is not mine, but 
the Father’s who sent me.’ 


General Review of Part IV 


1.—What is N. T. Theology? In what three respects does 
N. T. Theology differ from Systematic Theology? 

2.—What is meant by “types of N. T. teaching” ? Enu- 
merate and describe the chief N. T. types. 

3.—Sketch the history of the science of N. T. Theology; 
value of N. T. Theology; different methods of studying 
N. T. Theology. 

4.—Show the chief roots of N. T. teaching, and the 
ultimate origin of Christ’s plan of salvation. 


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